Contents
Articles
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World 1
Great Pyramid of Giza 5
Hanging Gardens of Babylon 16
Temple of Artemis 2 1
Statue of Zeus at Olympia 29
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 32
Colossus of Rhodes 38
Lighthouse of Alexandria 44
References
Article Sources and Contributors 49
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 52
Article Licenses
License 53
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
The Seven Wonders of the World (or the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World)
refers to remarkable constructions of
classical antiquity listed by various
authors in guidebooks popular among the
ancient Hellenic tourists, particularly in the
1st and 2nd centuries BC. The most
prominent of these, the versions by
Antipater of Sidon and an observer
identified as Philon of Byzantium, comprise
seven works located around the eastern
Mediterranean rim.
The original list inspired innumerable
versions through the ages, often listing
seven entries. Of the original Seven
Wonders, only one — the Great Pyramid of
Giza, the oldest of the ancient
wonders — remains relatively intact.
Background
The Greek conquest of much of the known
world in the 4th century BC gave Hellenistic
travellers access to the civilizations of the
Egyptians, Persians, and Babylonians.
Impressed and captivated by the landmarks
and marvels of the various lands, these
r3i
travellers began to list what they saw.
Such a list of these places made it easier to
remember them
[4]
Instead of "wonders", the ancient Greeks
spoke of "theamata", which means "sights",
in other words "things to be seen". (Ta ejttoc
6£au,ata tfj<; OLKouuivni; [yfj^] Ta hepta
theamata tes oikoumenes [ges]) Later, the
word for "wonder" ("thaumata") was used,
and this is also the case in modem Greek
(Ejtta 6ca)u,aTa tod ap/cdou k6ou,od).
Hence, the list was meant to be the Ancient
World's counterpart of a travel guidebook
[2]
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (from left to right, top to
bottom): Great Pyramid of Giza, Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Temple
of Artemis at Ephesus, Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Mausoleum of
Halicarnassus, Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria as
depicted by 16th-century Dutch artist Marten Heemskerk.
The Great Pyramid of Giza, the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World still standing.
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Each person had his own version of the list, but the best known and earliest surviving was from a poem by
Greek-speaking epigrammist Antipater of Sidon from around 140 BC. He named seven sites on his list, but was
primarily in praise of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus:
I have gazed on the walls of impregnable Babylon along which chariots may race, and on the Zeus by the
banks of the Alpheus, I have seen the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Helios, the great man-made
mountains of the lofty pyramids, and the gigantic tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the sacred house of
Artemis that towers to the clouds, the others were placed in the shade, for the sun himself has never looked
upon its equal outside Olympus.
— Antipater, Greek Anthology IX. 58
Another 2nd century BC observer, who claimed to be the mathematician Philon of Byzantium, wrote a short
account entitled The Seven Sights of the World. However, the incomplete surviving manuscript only covered six of
mi
the supposedly seven places, which agreed with Antipater's list.
Earlier and later lists by the historian Herodotus (484 BC— ca. 425 BC) and the architect Callimachus of Cyrene (ca.
305—240 BC), housed at the Museum of Alexandria, survived only as references.
The Colossus of Rhodes was the last of the seven to be completed, after 280 BC, and the first to be destroyed, by an
earthquake in 226/225 BC. Hence, all seven existed at the same time for a period of less than 60 years. Antipater had
mi
an earlier version which replaced Lighthouse of Alexandria with the Walls of Babylon. Lists which preceded the
construction of Colossus of Rhodes completed their seven entries with the inclusion of the Ishtar Gate.
Scope
It is thought that the limitation of the lists to seven entries was attributed to the special magical meaning of the
number. Geographically, the list covered only the sculptural and architectural monuments of the Mediterranean
and Middle Eastern regions, then thought to encompass the "known" world for the Greeks. Hence, extant sites
T21
beyond this realm were not considered as part of contemporary accounts.
The primary accounts, coming from Hellenistic writers, also heavily influenced the places included in the wonders
list. Five of the seven entries are a celebration of Greek accomplishments in the arts and architecture (the exceptions
being the Pyramids of Giza and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon).
The Seven Ancient Wonders
Wonder
Date of construction
Builder
Date of
destruction
Cause of destruction
Modern location
Great Pyramid of
Giza
2584-2561 BC
Egyptians
Still in existence
Still in existence
Giza Necropolis, Egypt
Hanging Gardens of
Babylon
Around 600 BC
(possibly legendary)
Chaldeans
After 1 st century
BC
Earthquakes
Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq,
or Kouyunjik, Nineveh Province
Temple of Artemis
at Ephesus
c. 550 BC
Lydians, Greeks
356 BC (by
Herostratus)
AD 262 (by the
Goths)
Arson by Herostratus,
Plundering
near Selcuk, Izmir Province,
Turkey
Statue of Zeus at
Olympia
466^56 BC (Temple)
435 BC (Statue)
Greeks
5th-6th
centuries AD
Fire
Olympia, Greece
Mausoleum of
Halicarnassus
351 BC
Carians, Greeks
by AD 1494
The original structure was
destroyed by flood.
Bodrum, Turkey
Colossus of Rhodes
292-280 BC
Greeks
226 BC
Earthquake
Rhodes, Greece
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Lighthouse of
Alexandria
c. 280 BC
Ptolemaic
Egypt, Greeks
AD 1303-1480
Earthquake
Alexandria, Egypt
Influence
Arts and architecture
The seven wonders on Antipater's list
won praises for their notable features,
ranging from superlatives of the
highest or largest of their types, to the
artistry with which they were executed.
Their architectural and artistic features
were imitated throughout the
Hellenistic world and beyond.
The Greek influence in Roman culture,
and the revival of Greco-Roman
artistic styles during the Renaissance
caught the imagination of European
181
artists and travellers. Paintings and
sculptures alluding to Antipater's list
were made, while adventurers flocked
A map showing the location of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
to the actual sites to personally witness the wonders. Legends circulated to further complement the superlatives of
the wonders.
Modern lists
Of Antipater's wonders, the only one that has survived to the present day is the Great Pyramid of Giza. The existence
of the Hanging Gardens has not been proven, although theories abound. Records and archaeology confirm the
existence of the other five wonders. The Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus were destroyed by fire, while the
Lighthouse of Alexandria, Colossus, and tomb of Mausolus were destroyed by earthquakes. Among the artifacts to
have survived are sculptures from the tomb of Mausolus and the Temple of Artemis in the British Museum in
London.
Still, the listing of seven of the most marvellous architectural and artistic human achievements continued beyond the
Ancient Greek times to the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and to the modern age. The Roman
poet Martial and the Christian bishop Gregory of Tours had their versions. Reflecting the rise of Christianity and
the factor of time, nature and the hand of man overcoming Antipater's seven wonders, Roman and Christian sites
began to figure on the list, including the Colosseum, Noah's Ark and Solomon's Temple. In the 6th century, a list
of seven wonders was compiled by Gregory, Bishop of Tours. The list included the Temple of Solomon, the Pharos
of Alexandria and Noah's Ark
[9]
Modern historians, working on the premise that the original Seven Ancient Wonders List was limited in its
geographic scope, also had their versions to encompass sites beyond the Hellenistic realm — from the Seven Wonders
of the Ancient World to the Seven Wonders of the World. Indeed, the "seven wonders" label has spawned
innumerable versions among international organizations, publications and individuals based on different
themes — works of nature, engineering masterpieces, constructions of the Middle Ages, etc. Its purpose has also
changed from just a simple travel guidebook or a compendium of curious places to lists of sites to defend.
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
References
[1] Anon. l993The Oxford Illustrated Encyclopedia First Edition Oxford: Oxford University
[2] "The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World" (http://www.amazeingart.com/seven-wonders/7-wonders.html). . Retrieved 2009-09-14.
[3] "History of the Past: World History" (http://www.worldhistory.byethost8.com/). . Retrieved 2009-09-12.
[4] Paul Lunde (May/June 1980). "The Seven Wonders" (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198003/the.seven.wonders.htm). Saudi
Aramco World. . Retrieved 2009-09-12.
[5] Clayton, Peter; Martin J. Price (1990). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (http://books.google.co.uk/
books?id=n9QOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=theamata+seven+wonders&num=100). Routledge. pp. 4. ISBN 978-0415050364. .
[6] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Micropa:dia Volume 10. USA: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. 1995. pp. 666. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.
[7] "The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World — Part II" (http://www.newsfinder.org/site/more/
the_seven_wonders_of_the_ancient_world_part_ii/). . Retrieved 2009-09-14.
[8] "Wonders of Europe" (http://www.7wonders.org/wonders/europe/). . Retrieved 2009-09-14.
[9] Clayton, Peter and Price, Martin: The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (Routledge, 1988), pp. 162—63.
Further reading
• D'Epiro, Peter, and Mary Desmond Pinkowish, "What Are the Seven Wonders of the World? and 100 Other Great
Cultural Lists". Anchor. December 1, 1998. ISBN 0-385-49062-3
• "The Seven Wonders of the World, a History of Modern Imagination" written by John & Elizabeth Romer in
1995
• "The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Peter Clayton and Martin Price in 1988
• Johann Conrad Orelli (ed.) Philonis Byzantini Libellus de septem orbis spectaculis (http://books.google.com/
books?id=o_gaAAAAYAAJ). 1816. The original travel guide by Pseudo-Philo
External links
• "Eternal wonder of humanity's first great achievements" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/
0„203061 1,00. html), by Jonathan Glancey in The Guardian, March 10, 2007
• "Seven Ancient Wonders of the World" (http://www.history.com/content/sevenwonders/wonders-of-the-ages)
on The History Channel website. Also includes links to Medieval, Modern & Natural Wonders.
• The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (http://www.authenticwonders.com/Wonders/) — a look from a
professor of civil engineering at the American University in Dubai. Includes a map (http://www.
authenticwonders.com/Wonders/map.html) of the locations.
• Livius.org: Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (http://www.livius.org/se-sg/7wonders/seven_wonders.
html) — website by a Dutch historian.
• Parkin, Tim, Researching Ancient Wonders: A Research Guide (http://web.archive.org/web/2004101 1 1 14644/
http://www.clas.canterbury.ac.nz/wonders.html), from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. — a
collection of books and Internet resources with information on seven ancient wonders.
• Seven Wonders Suite for Orchestra (http://www.tjmitchell.com/sevenwonders/home.html) — A symphonic
suite inspired by the seven ancient monuments by UK composer Stuart Mitchell — The Prague Symphony
Orchestra
Great Pyramid of Giza
Great Pyramid of Giza
Great Pyramid of Giza
Khufu
Ancient Name Khufu's Horizon
Constructed c. 2560-2540 BC
Type True Pyramid
Height 146.5 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft)
Base 230.4 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft)
The Great Pyramid of Giza (called the Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of
the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact. Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was
built as a tomb for fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops in Greek) over an approximately 20 year period
concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres (480.6 ft), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made
structure in the world for over 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed a
smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once
covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories
about the Great Pyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that
it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which
the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up
within the pyramid structure. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the only pyramid in Egypt known to contain both
ascending and descending passages. The main part of the Giza complex is a setting of buildings that included two
mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for
Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small
mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.
Great Pyramid of Giza
History and description
It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu and was constructed over a
20 year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemon, or Hemiunu, is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.
It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall, 146.5 metres (unknown
operator: u'strong' ft) but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (unknown
operator: u'strong' ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long. A
royal cubit measures 0.524 metres. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume,
T41
including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres. Based on these estimates, building this in 20 years
would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Similarly, since it consists of an estimated
2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the
blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by
Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880—82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Almost all
reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid
were fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north eastern casing stones, the
mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetres wide (l/50th of an inch).
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The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for
over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until the 160-metre- tall spire of
Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the
pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an
ro]
average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal
and flat to within ±15 mm. The sides of the square base are closely
aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within 4 minutes of
arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished
base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.
The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and
subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 cubits Great Pyramid of Giza from a 19th century
high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio stereopticon card photo
of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 cubits equates to 2jt to an
accuracy of better than 0.05% (corresponding to the well-known approximation of Jt as 22/7). Some Egyptologists
consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although
the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of Jt, in practice they used it". Petrie, author of
Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that
we should grant that they were in the builder's design". Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no
concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid
slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the
finished building.
Materials
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million limestone blocks with most believed to have been
transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest
granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from
Aswan, more than 500 miles away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering wooden wedges
into the stone which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the
rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is
estimated that 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tons of
mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.
Great Pyramid of Giza
Casing stones
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing
stones" — slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white
limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face
slope with a seked of 5Vi palms to give the required dimensions.
Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen
today. In AD 1300, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer
casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir
Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in
nearby Cairo. The stones can still be seen as parts of these structures.
Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of
the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, a
few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid,
and display the same workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different
orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination
of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a
n si
different orientation. Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the
present day, but on a scale of acres" and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so
with cement in the joints seems almost impossible". It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie's "cement")
that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed which enabled the masons to set the stones
exactly.
Construction theories
Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction
T221
techniques. Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks
believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby worker's camps associated with
construction at Giza suggest it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labor
was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000
T231
men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.
One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that
had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1 to 1 scale. He
writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision
T241 r251
unmatched by any other means." He also argues for a 14 year time span for its construction.
Great Pyramid of Giza
Interior
The original entrance to the Great
Pyramid is 17 metres (unknown
operator: u'strong 1 ft) vertically
above ground level and 7.29 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) east
of the center line of the pyramid. From
this original entrance there is a
Descending Passage .96 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft)
high and 1.04 metres (unknown
operator: u'strong' ft) wide which
goes down at an angle of 26° 31 '23"
through the masonry of the pyramid
and then into the bedrock beneath it.
After 105.23 metres (unknown
operator: u'strong' ft) the passage
becomes level and continues for an
additional 8.84 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been
finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit
dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original
Diagram of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid. The inner line indicates the
pyramid's present profile, the outer line indicates the original profile.
burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid
[26]
At 28.2 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending
Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending
Passage is 39.3 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and
slopes up at almost precisely the same angle. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks
of granite, each about 1.5 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the
right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall (and now blocked by chicken wire). This is the start of a vertical shaft
which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start
of the Grand Gallery there is a Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber". The passage is 1.1m (3'8")
high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) high.
The Queen's Chamber is exactly half-way between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75
metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) east to west
and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) above the floor. At the eastern
end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) high. The original depth of the
niche was 1.04 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters .
In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there are shafts, which unlike those in the King's Chamber that
immediately slope upwards, are horizontal for around 2m (6') before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was
cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed on the analogy of the King's Chamber that such
shafts must exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or
the Queen's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black
T271
diorite and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.
The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1992 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a
crawler robot of his own design which he called "Upuaut 2". After a climb of 65 m (unknown operator:
Great Pyramid of Giza
no]
u'strong 1 ft) He discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper
"handles". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which drilled a small hole in the
[291
southern door, only to find another larger door behind it. The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate
because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door. This research was continued in 201 1 by the
Djedi Project team.
In 201 1 the Djedi Project team used a Micro snake camera (that can see around corners) to penetrate the first door of
the northern shaft, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. (The National Geographic Society used a
camera that was only able to look straight forward.) They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were
also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles" embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be
of an ornamental nature. They also found the reverse side of the "door" to be finished and polished, which suggests
that it wasn t put there just to block the shaft, but rather for a more specific reason.
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but
is 8.6 metres (unknown operator: u'strong 1 ft) high and 46.68 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are
corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (unknown operator:
u'strong' in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so at the top
the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (unknown operator:
u'strong' ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly
steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a
slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose
was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery rather than
resting on the block beneath it, which would have resulted in an
unacceptable cumulative pressure at the lower end of the Gallery.
At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole
near the roof which opens into a short tunnel by which access can be
The Grand Gallery of the Great Pyramid of Giza gained tQ ^ lQwest Qf ^ Rdieving Chambers. The Other Relieving
Chambers were discovered in 1837/8 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J.
S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.
The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (unknown operator:
u'strong' in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) wide between them. In the
shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These
form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter
in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the
blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding
down the passage . This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were
intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.
At the top of the Grand Gallery there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage approximately 1.02 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended
to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from
these now vanished doors.
The King's Chamber is 10.47 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) from east to west and 5.234 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 5.974 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft)
above the floor. 0.91 m (3 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now
filled by an extractor fan to try to circulate air in the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear
Great Pyramid of Giza
10
to be aligned on stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, but on the other hand one of them follows a
dog-leg course through the masonry so there was not intention to directly sight stars through them. Longtime
believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts" for ventilation, this idea has now been widely abandoned in favor of the
i T331
shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king s spirit to the heavens.
The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing
in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King's
Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse
suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the
ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davidson Chamber", "Wellington
Chamber", "Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber" and "Campbell's Chamber". It is believed that the compartments were
intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above
the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the
stones still retain mason's marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently
the name of a work gang, which incorporates the only reference in the pyramid to Pharaoh Khufu .
The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite
"sarcophagus", one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is
slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must
have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place.
Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus
is roughly finished, with saw marks visible in several places. This is in
contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in
other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a
sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north
from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead. The entrance of the Pyramid
Entrance
Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel dug by workmen employed by Caliph al-Ma'mun
around AD 820. The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres
(unknown operator: u'strong' ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending
Passage. Unable to remove these stones, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the
Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but
access is usually forbidden.
Great Pyramid of Giza
11
Pyramid complex
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a
complex of several buildings including
small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple,
which stood on the east side of the pyramid
and measured 52.2 metres (unknown
operator: u'strong 1 ft) north to south and
40 metres (unknown operator:
u'strong 1 ft) east to west, has almost
entirely disappeared apart from the black
basalt paving. There are only a few
remnants of the causeway which linked the
pyramid with the valley and the Valley
Temple. The Valley Temple is buried
beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman;
basalt paving and limestone walls have been
found but the site has not been
excavated. The basalt blocks show
"clear evidence" of having been cut with
some kind of saw with an estimated cutting
blade 15 ft in length capable of cutting at a
rate of 1 1/2 inches (40 mm) a minute. John Romer suggests this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and
weighed up to 300 lbs. He theorizes such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and used in conjunction
with possibly vegetable oil, cutting sand, or emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks and would have required at
least a dozen men to operate it.
+
Map of Giza pyramid complex
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to
nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the
first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb
of Queen Hetepheres, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition,
the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.
The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the
pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a
cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow, and outside of which Mark
Lehner has discovered a worker's town, otherwise known as "The Lost
City", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to
have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of
Khafre (2520-2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490-2472 BC). [37][38] In the
early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a
mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained
artifacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with
[39]
an artisans' settlement. Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's
Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been
suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his
death. A workers cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and
Group photo of Australian 1 1th Battalion soldiers
on the Great Pyramid in 1915.
Great Pyramid of Giza
12
the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the
T411
Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.
Boats
There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and
shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any
superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or
disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal
el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still
covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224
pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (unknown operator:
u'strong' ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (unknown operator: u'strong 1 ft). These were entrusted to a native
boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who slowly and methodically worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire
process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long, its timbers held together by
ropes, which is now currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During
construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was
deliberately left unopened in the hope that future excavation techniques will allow more information to be recovered.
Aerial photography, taken from Eduard
Spelterini's balloon on 21 November 1904
Looting
Although succeeding pyramids were
smaller, pyramid building continued
until the end of the Middle Kingdom.
However, as authors Briar and Hobbs
claim, "all the pyramids were robbed"
by the New Kingdom, when the
construction of royal tombs in a desert
valley, now known as the Valley of the
Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley
states that the Great Pyramid itself "is
known to have been opened and
emptied by the Middle Kingdom",
before the Arab caliph Abdullah
al-Mamun entered the pyramid around
AD 820. [44]
-16. Ryugyong Hotel
North Korea, under construction, 330 m
-13. Transamerica Pyramid
USA, 1972, 260 m
0. Bosnian pyramid (for comparison)
Bosnia & Herzegovina, disputed, 220 m
4. Great Pyramid of Giza / Khufu/Cheops
Egypt, c.2560 BC, 138.8 m (was 146.5 m)
5. Pyramid of Khafre/Chefren
Egypt, c.2530 BC, 136.4 m (was 143.5 m)
15. Luxor Las Vegas pyramid
USA, 1993, 111 m
3. Red/North Pyramid
Egypt, c.2580 BC, 104 m
2. Bent Pyramid
Egypt, C.2EDD BC, 101. 1 m
7. Mount Li / Qin Shi Huang mausoleun
China, c.210 BC, 47 m (was 76 m)
9. Pyramid of the Sun
Mexico, c.100, 75 m
11. Great Pyramid of Cholula
Mexico, c.900, 66 m
6. Pyramid of Menkaure/Mycerinus
1. Pyramid of Djoser
Egypt, c.2610 BC, 62.6 m
•10. Pyramid of the Moon
Mexico, c.300, 43 m X
8. Pyramid of Cest
Italy, c.12 BC, 37 m
El Castillo, Ch
Mexico noon 30
200 m 150 m "lQi
stius
ichen Itza
-147*bQuvre pyramid
, , .Frirta.imp.g.f-m , ,
150 m 200 m 250
300 r
Comparison of approximate profiles of some notable pyramidal or near-pyramidal
buildings. Where the base is an oblong, the longer side is shown. Dotted lines indicate
original heights, where data is available.
I. E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's
mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a
sloping passage to the foundations." Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the
Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added. He adds "If this highly
speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or
that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones" in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the
entrance.
He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story he
was told about vaults under the pyramid built upon an island where lay the body of Cheops. Edwards notes that the
Great Pyramid of Giza 1 3
pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus" and that it
might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He
suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by
Pyramid guides.
References
Notes
[I] John Romer, in his The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited notes "By themselves, of course, none of these modern labels define the
ancient purposes of the architecture they describe." p. 8
[2] Shaw (2003) p.89.
[3] Dilke (1987) pp.9,23.
[4] Levy (2005) p. 17.
[5] W. M. Flinder's Petrie (1883). "The pyramids and temples of Gizeh" (http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/index.htm). .
[6] I. E. S. Edwards: "The Pyramids of Egypt" 1986/1947 p. 285
[7] Collins (2001) p.234.
[8] Cole Survey (1925) based on side lengths 230.252m, 230.454m, 230.391m, 230.357m
[9] Lehner (1997) The Complete Pyramids. ppl08
[10] Petrie (1883) pp38. For 2600 BC, bisecting the semi-circular path of star lOi Draconis around the North Celestial Pole during the half-day
darkness of a mid-winter evening would easily provide accurate true north. See Nature 412:699 (2001); further sources and discussion
available via DIO (http://www.dioi.Org/cot.htm#wkpf).
[II] Petrie (1883) ppl25
[12] Petrie (1883) pp39
[13] Verner (2003) p.70.
[14] Petrie Wisdom of the Egyptians 1940: 30
[15] Rossi, Corina Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt Cambridge University Press. 2007 ISBN 978-0-521-69053-9
[16] Lehner (1997)
[17] Romer, John (2007). The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-87166-2. PP
157
[18] Petrie (1883).
[19] Romer, John (2007). The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited (http://books. google. com/?id=ag_blaOMgDUC&pg=PA41&
lpg=PA41&dq=petrie+opticians+work&q=petrie opticians work). Cambridge University Press, p. 41. ISBN 9780521871662. . Retrieved 24
August 2009.
[20] Clarke, Somers; Reginal Engelbach (1991). Ancient Egyptian construction and architecture (http://books.google.com/
?id=L0Uiat5EAaMC&pg=PA78&dq=mortar+"great+pyramid"#v=onepage&q=mortar "great pyramid"&f=false). Dover Publications.
pp. 78-79. ISBN 978-0486264851. .
[21] Stocks, Denys Allen (2003). Experiments in Egyptian archaeology: stoneworking technology in ancient Egypt (http://books.google.com/
?id=oLDuHvQODoIC&pg=PA182&dq=mortar+"great+pyramid"+surface#v=onepage&q=mortar "great pyramid" surface&f=false).
Routledge. pp. 182-183. ISBN 978-0415306645. .
[22] "Building the Great Pyramid" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/great_pyramid_01.shtml). BBC. 3 February 2006. .
[23] Verner (2001) pp. 75-82.
[24] Romer, John, The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited, p. 327, pp. 329—337
[25] Romer, John (2007) (http://books. google. com/books ?id=ag_blaOMgDUC&q=khufu#v=snippet&q="built to be his tomb"&f=false), .
Retrieved 16 August 2010. p. 74, schedule on pp. 456-560.
[26] "Unfinished Chamber" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/explore/khufuunfhi.html). Public Broadcasting Service. . Retrieved
11 August 2008.
[27] "Lower Northern Shaft" (http://www.cheops.org/startpage/thefindings/thelowernorthshaft/lowernorth.htm). The Upuaut Project. .
Retrieved 11 October 2010.
[28] "Will the Great Pyramid's Secret Doors Be Opened?" (http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/201 1/12/12/
will-great-pyramids-secret-doors-be-opened/?test=faces). Fox News. 12 December 2011. .
[29] Gupton, Nancy (4 April 2003). "Ancient Egyptian Chambers Explored" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/09/
0910_020913_egypt_l.html). National Geographic. . Retrieved 11 August 2008.
[30] "Third "Door" Found in Great Pyramid" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/09/0923_020923_egypt.html). National
Geographic. 23 September 2002. . Retrieved 1 1 August 2008.
[31] http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/12/12/will-great-pyramids-secret-doors-be-opened/
[32] http://news.discovery.com/history/pyramids-hieroglyphs-robot-mystery-110526.html
[33] Jackson and Stamp (2002) Pyramid: Beyond Imagination, pp. 79 & 104
Great Pyramid of Giza 14
34] Shafer, Byron E.; Dieter Arnold (2005). Temples of Ancient Egypt (http://books.google.com/?id=cv08amI71kUC&pg=PA5 1&
dq=khufu+"valley+temple"#v=onepage&q=khufu "valley temple"&f=false). LB. Tauris. pp. 51-52. ISBN 978-1850439455. .
35] Arnold, Dieter; Nigel Strudwick, Helen Strudwick (2002). The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture. LB. Tauris. p. 126.
ISBN 978-1860644658.
36] Romer, John (2007). The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-87166-2 PP
164,165
37] "http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/lost-city/"
38] "http://www.aeraweb.org/lost-city-project/dating-the-lost-city/"
39] Zahi Hawass: '"Giza, workmen's community", In: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Compiled and edited by Kathryn A.
Bard. London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0 p. 423-426
40] Hawass, Zahi; Ashraf Senussi (2008). Old Kingdom Pottery from Giza. Supreme Council of Antiquities, pp. 127—128.
ISBN 978-9773059866.
41] Hawass, Zahi. "The Discovery of the Tombs of the Pyramid Builders at Giza" (http://www.guardians.net/hawass/buildtomb.htm). .
Retrieved 21 October 2010.
42] "Brier 1999, p. 164" (http://books.google.co. uk/books?id=jPgHx4gfJkIC&pg=PA164&dq=pyramids+robbed+end+of+old+
kingdom&ei=mBnaSIGxMpS4yQSR3ZSNDQ&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3UlnC_eucZoNlre6LvOMOyhxeuYJpg). Books.google.co.uk. .
Retrieved 19 May 2011.
43] "Cremin 2007 p.96" (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A011BlzF6UgC&pg=PA96&dq=pyramids+robbed+end+of+old+
kingdom&ei=mBnaSIGxMpS4yQSR3ZSNDQ&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U27n531SIdTdKUuMnSPKOWsvweB_w).
Books.google.co.uk. . Retrieved 19 May 2011.
44] Tyldesley, 2007 p.38
45] I. E. S. Edwards, The Pyramids of Egypt" Max Parrishl986/1962 pp.99-100
46] I. E. S. Edwards, The Pyramids of Egypt" Max Parrishl986/1962 pp.990-91
Bibliography
Bauval, Robert &, Hancock, Graham (1996). Keeper of Genesis. Mandarin books. ISBN 0-7493-2196-2.
Brier, Bob &, Hobbs, A. Hoyt (1999). Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Press.
ISBN 978-0313303135.
Calter, Paul A. (2008). Squaring the Circle: Geometry in Art and Architecture. Key College Publishing.
ISBN 1-930190-82-4.
Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05074-0.
Cole, JH. (1925). Determination of the Exact Size and Orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza. Cairo:
Government Press. SURVEY OF EGYPT Paper No. 39.
Collins, Dana M. (2001). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780195102345.
Cremin, Aedeen (2007). Archaeologica. Frances Lincoln. ISBN 978-0711228221.
Dilke, O.A.W. (1992). Mathematics and Measurement. University of California Press. ISBN 0520060725.
Jackson, K. &, J. Stamp (2002). Pyramid : Beyond Imagination. Inside the Great Pyramid of Giza. BBC
Worldwide Ltd. ISBN 978-0563488033.
Gahlin, Lucia (2003). Myths and Mythology of Ancient Egypt. Anness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84215-831-7.
Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
Levy, Janey (2005). The Great Pyramid of Giza: Measuring Length, Area, Volume, and Angles. Rosen Publishing
Group. ISBN 1404260595.
Lepre, J. P. (1990). The Egyptian Pyramids: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Reference. McFarland & Company.
ISBN 0899504612.
Lightbody, David I (2008). Egyptian Tomb Architecture: The Archaeological Facts of Pharaonic Circular
Symbolism. British Archaeological Reports International Series SI 852. ISBN 978-1407303390.
Oakes, Lorana; Lucia Gahlin (2002). Ancient Egypt. Hermes House. ISBN 1-84309-429-0.
Petrie, Sir William Matthew Flinders (1883). The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh (http://www.ronaldbirdsall.
com/gizeh/index.htm). Field & Tuer. ISBN 0710307098.
Romer, John (2007). The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
ISBN 978-0-521-87166-2.
Great Pyramid of Giza 15
Scarre, Chris (1999). The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World. Thames & Hudson, London.
ISBN 978-0500050965.
Seidelmann, P.Kenneth (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac . University Science Books.
ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198150342.
Siliotti, Alberto (1997). Guide to the pyramids of Egypt; preface by Zahi Hawass.. Barnes & Noble Books.
ISBN unknown.
Smyth, Piazzi (1978). The Great Pyramid. Crown Publishers Inc.. ISBN 0-517-26403-X.
Tyldesley, Joyce (2007). Egypt:How a lost civilization was rediscovered. BBC Books. ISBN 978-0563522577.
Verner, Miroslav (2001). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove
Press. ISBN 0-8021-1703-1.
Verner, Miroslav (2003). The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. Atlantic Books. ISBN 1843541718.
Wirsching, Armin (2009 2nd ed.). Die Pyramiden von Giza — Mathematik in Stein gebaut. Books on Demand.
ISBN 9783837023558.
External links
• Pyramids — The Inside Story (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/explore/khufuenter.html) from PBS'
Nova (TV series)
• Belless, Stephen. "The Upuaut Project Homepage" (http://www.cheops.org/). Upuaut Project. Retrieved 1
April 2008.
• Building the Khufu Pyramid (http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/pyramid-building.html)
• "The Giza Mapping Project" (http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/giz). Oriental Institute. Retrieved 1
April 2008.
• Great Pyramid of Giza (http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/great-pyramid.html)
• Great Pyramid complex (http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/great-pyramid-complex.html)
• Hawass, Dr. Zahi. "How Old are the Pyramids?" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20080305031531/http://www.
aeraweb.org/how_old.asp). Ancient Egypt Research Associates. Archived from the original (http://www.
aeraweb.org/how_old.asp) on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 1 April 2008.
• Johnson, Andrew (8 August 2010). "Robot to explore mysterious tunnels in Great Pyramid" (http://www.
independent.co.uk/news/science/robot-to-explore-mysterious-tunnels-in-great-pyramid-2046506.html). The
Independent (UK). Retrieved 9 August 2010.
• "Khufu — Cheops" (http://www.ancient-egypt-history.com/2010/05/4th-dynasty-part-ii-khufu-cheops-2589.
html). Egyptology Courses & Contests — Ancient Egypt History. 29 May 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
16
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
were considered to be one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World, and the
only one of the Wonders that may have
been purely legendary. They were
purportedly built in the ancient
city-state of Babylon, near present-day
Al Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq. The
Hanging Gardens were not the only
World Wonder in Babylon; the city
walls and obelisk attributed to Queen
Semiramis were also featured in
ancient lists of Wonders
[l]
A 16th-century hand-coloured engraving of the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon" by Dutch
artist Martin Heemskerck, with the Tower of Babel in the background
The gardens were attributed to the
Neo-Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled between
605 and 562 BC. He is reported to have constructed the gardens to please his homesick wife, Amytis of Media, who
longed for the plants of her homeland. The gardens were said to have been destroyed by several earthquakes after
the 2nd century BC.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers, including Strabo, Diodorus
Siculus, and Quintus Curtius Rufus. However, no cuneiform texts describing the Hanging Gardens are extant, and no
definitive archaeological evidence concerning their whereabouts have been found.
Ancient writers describe the possible use of something similar to an Archimedes screw as a process of irrigating the
terraced gardens. Estimates based on descriptions of the gardens in ancient sources say the Hanging Gardens
would have required a minimum amount of 8,200 gallons of water per day. Nebuchadnezzar II is also reported to
have used massive slabs of stone, a technique not otherwise attested in Babylon, to prevent the water from eroding
the ground.
References in ancient texts
In ancient writings the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon were first
described by Berossus, a Babylonian
priest of Marduk who lived in the late
4th century BC, although his books are
known only from quotations by later
authors (e.g., Flavius Josephus). There
are five principal writers (including
Berossus) whose descriptions of
Babylon are extant in some form
today. These writers concern
themselves with the size of the
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 20th century Interpretation
Hanging Gardens of Babylon 17
Hanging Gardens, why and how they were built, and how the gardens were irrigated.
T71
Josephus (ca. 37—100 AD) quoted Berossus (writing ca. 280 BC), when he described the gardens. Berossus
ro]
described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, the king he credits with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.
"In this palace he erected very high walks, supported by stone pillars; and by planting what was called a
pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact
resemblance of a mountainous country. This he did to gratify his queen, because she had been brought
up in Media, and was fond of a mountainous situation.
Diodorus Siculus (active ca. 60—30 BC) seems to have consulted the early 4th century BC texts of Ctesias of Cnidus
for his description of the Hanging Gardens:
"There was also, beside the acropolis, the Hanging Garden, as it is called, which was built, not by
Semiramis, but by a later Syrian king to please one of his concubines; for she, they say, being a Persian
by race and longing for the meadows of her mountains, asked the king to imitate, through the artifice of
a planted garden, the distinctive landscape of Persia. The park extended four plethra on each side, and
since the approach to the garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one
another tier on tier, the appearance of the whole resembled that of a theatre. When the ascending terraces
had been built, there had been constructed beneath them galleries which carried the entire weight of the
planted garden and rose little by little one above the other along the approach; and the uppermost
gallery, which was fifty cubits high, bore the highest surface of the park, which was made level with the
circuit wall of the battlements of the city. Furthermore, the walls, which had been constructed at great
expense, were twenty-two feet thick, while the passage-way between each two walls was ten feet wide.
The roof above these beams had first a layer of reeds laid in great quantities of bitumen, over this two
courses of baked brick bonded by cement, and as a third layer of covering of lead, to the end that the
moisture from the soil might not penetrate beneath. On all this again earth had been piled to a depth
sufficient for the roots of the largest trees; and the ground, when levelled off, was thickly planted with
trees of every king that, by their great size or other charm, could give pleasure to the beholder. And
since the galleries, each projecting beyond another, all received the light, they contained many royal
lodgings of every description; and there was one gallery which contained openings leading from the
topmost surface and machines for supplying the gardens with water, the machines raising the water in
great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it being done. Now this park, as I
have said, was a later construction."
Quintus Curtius Rufus (active 1st century AD) referred to the writings of Cleitarchus, a 4th century BC historian of
Alexander the Great, when writing his own History of Alexander the Great:
"The Babylonians also have a citadel twenty stades in circumference. The foundations of its turrets are
sunk thirty feet into the ground and the fortifications rise eighty feet above it at the highest point. On its
summit are the hanging gardens, a wonder celebrated by the fables of the Greeks. They are as high as
the top of the walls and owe their charm to the shade of many tall trees. The columns supporting the
whole edifice are built of rock, and on top of them is a flat surface of squared stones strong enough to
bear the deep layer of earth placed upon it and the water used for irrigating it. So stout are the trees the
structure supports that their trunks are eight cubits thick and their height as much as fifty feet; they bear
fruit as abundantly as if they were growing in their natural environment. And although time with its
gradual decaying processes is as destructive to nature's works as to man's, even so this edifice survives
undamaged, despite being subjected to the pressure of so many tree-roots and the strain of bearing the
weight of such a huge forest. It has a substructure of walls twenty feet thick at eleven foot intervals, so
that from a distance one has the impression of woods overhanging their native mountains. Tradition has
it that it is the work of a Syrian king who ruled from Babylon. He built it out of love for his wife who
missed the woods and forests in this flat country and persuaded her husband to imitate nature's beauty
Hanging Gardens of Babylon 18
with a structure of this kind."
Strabo (ca. 64 BC — 21 AD) described of the Hanging Gardens as follows, in a passage that was thought to be based
on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC:
"Babylon, too, lies in a plain; and the circuit of its wall is three hundred and eighty-five stadia. The
thickness of its wall is thirty-two feet; the height thereof between the towers is fifty cubits; that of the
towers is sixty cubits; and the passage on top of the wall is such that four-horse chariots can easily pass
one another; and it is on this account that this and the hanging garden are called one of the Seven
Wonders of the World. The garden is quadrangular in shape, and each side is four plethra in length. It
consists of arched vaults, which are situated, one after another, on checkered, cube-like foundations. The
checkered foundations, which are hollowed out, are covered so deep with earth that they admit of the
largest of trees, having been constructed of baked brick and asphalt — the foundations themselves and
the vaults and the arches. The ascent to the uppermost terrace-roofs is made by a stairway; and alongside
these stairs there were screws, through which the water was continually conducted up into the garden
from the Euphrates by those appointed for this purpose, for the river, a stadium in width, flows through
the middle of the city; and the garden is on the bank of the river."
ri2i
Philo of Byzantium (writing ca. 250 BC), whose list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World we use today,
was credited with the following description:
"The Hanging Gardens [is so-called because it] has plants cultivated at a height above ground level, and
the roots of the trees are embedded in an upper terrace rather than in the earth. This is the technique of
its construction. The whole mass is supported on stone columns, so that the entire underlying space is
occupied by carved column bases. The columns carry beams set at very narrow intervals. The beams are
palm trunks, for this type of wood — unlike all others — does not rot and, when it is damp and subjected
to heavy pressure, it curves upwards. Moreover it does itself give nourishment to the root branches and
fibres, since it admits extraneous matter into its folds and crevices. This structure supports an extensive
and deep mass of earth, in which are planted broad-leaved trees of the sort that are commonly found in
gardens, a wide variety of flowers of all species and, in brief, everything that is most agreeable to the
eye and conducive to the enjoyment of pleasure. The whole area is ploughed in just the same way as
solid ground, and is just as suitable as other soil for grafting and propagation. Thus it happens that a
ploughed field lies above the heads of those who walk between the columns below. Yet while the upper
surface of the earth is trampled underfoot, the lower and denser soil closest to the supporting framework
remains undisturbed and virgin. Streams of water emerging from elevated sources flow partly in a
straight line down sloping channels, and are partly forced upwards through bends and spirals to gush out
higher up, being impelled through the twists of these devices by mechanical forces. So, brought together
in frequent and plentiful outlets at a high level, these waters irrigate the whole garden, saturating the
deep roots of the plants and keeping the whole area of cultivation continually moist. Hence the grass is
permanently green, and the leaves of trees grow firmly attached to supple branches, and increasing in
size and succulence with the constant humidity. For the root [system] is kept saturated and sucks up the
all-pervading supply of water, wandering in interlaced channels beneath the ground, and securely
maintaining the well-established and excellent quality of trees. This is a work of art of royal luxury [lit.
'riotous living'], and its most striking feature is that the labor of cultivation is suspended above the heads
of the spectators . "
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
19
Current scholarship and controversy
There is some controversy as to
whether the Hanging Gardens were an
actual construction or a poetic creation,
owing to the lack of documentation in
contemporaneous Babylonian sources.
There is also no mention of
Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or
any other wives), although a political
marriage to a Median or Persian would
ri4i
not have been unusual. Herodotus,
writing about Babylon closest in time
to Nebuchadnezzar II, does not
mention the Hanging Gardens in his
Histories. However, it is possible that
cuneiform texts on the Hanging
Gardens may yet be found.
This copy of a bas relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal (669—63 1 BC) at
Nineveh shows a luxurious garden watered by an aqueduct.
To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens. It is possible that this
evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its
current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, and consequently little is known about the western portion of
Babylon. [15]
A more recent theory proposes that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrian king
Sennacherib (reigned 705 — 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening
centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to
Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon
[16]
Popular references
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon feature in Matthew Reilly's fictional action novel Seven Ancient Wonders.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is the setting for certain scenes in Giuseppe Verdi's opera Nabucco.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is a wonder that can be built in the video game series Civilization.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is a level featured in The Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is a level featured in Sonic Riders.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon feature as a Wonder of the Ancient World in Rome Total War, and increases all
the settlements owned by the faction that owns it to have a bonus in agriculture.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon 20
References
[I] Finkel (2008) pp. 19-20.
[2] Maureen Carroll, Earthly Paradises: Ancient Gardens in History and Archaeology (http://books.google.com/
books?id=oHMxwLVbSDMC&pg=PA26), (London: British Museum Press, 2003), pp. 26-27 ISBN 0892367210.
[3] Finkel (1988) p. 58.
[4] Irving Finkel and Michael Seymour, Babylon: City of Wonders, (London: British Museum Press, 2008), p. 52, ISBN 0714111716.
[5] 1. Strabo, "Geographies", XVI. 1, § 5 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16A*.html#1.5).
Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved on 2011-12-12.
[6] D. W. W. Stevenson (1992). "A Proposal for the Irrigation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Iraq 54: 51. JSTOR 4200351.
[7] Finkel (1988) p. 41.
[8] Finkel (2008) p. 108.
[9] Joseph, contr. Appion. (http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af05.htm) lib. 1. c. 19. — Syncel. Chron. 220. — Euseb. Prcep. Evan. lib. 9.
[10] DiodorusSiculusII.10-1-10
[II] History of Alexander V. 1.35-5
[12] Finkel (1988) p. 45.
[13] This was originally quoted as a translation by David Oates in Finkel (1988) pp. 45—46. This author is now thought to not be Philo the
Engineer of Byzantium, but perhaps Philo the Paradoxographer of Byzantium, Stephanie Dalley, "More about the Hanging Gardens," in Of
Pots and Pans: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria as presented to David Oates on his 75th Birthday, Edited
by L. al-Gailani-Werr, J.E. Curtis, H. Martin, A. McMahon, J. Oates and J.E. Reade, (London), pp. 67-73 ISBN 1897750625.
[14] Finkel (2008) p. 109.
[15] Joan Oates, Babylon, Revised Edition, Thames and Hudson, London (1986) p. 144 ISBN 0500273847.
[16] Stephanie Dalley (1993). "Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved". Garden
History 21: 7. JSTOR 1587050.
Bibliography
• Finkel, Irving (1988) "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon," (http://books.google.com/
books?id=vGhbJzigPBwC&pg=PA38) In The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Edited by Peter Clayton and
Martin Price, Routledge, New York, pp. 38 ff. ISBN 0415050367.
• Finkel, Irving and Seymour, Michael (2008) Babylon, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 0195385403.
External links
• How the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Work: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (http://history.
howstuffworks.com/asian-history/seven-wonder-ancient-world2.htm)
• Plants in the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (http://jstorplants.org/201 1/08/25/
identifying -the-hanging-gardens-of-babylon-the-tamarisk-and-date-palm/)
• Artistic Renditions of the Hanging Gardens and the city of Babylon (http://hanginggardensofbabylon.org/
hanginggardens . asp)
• Google Earth Rendering of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Dimensions (http://howbigreally.com/dimension/
ancient_worlds/hanging_gardens_of_babylon)
Temple of Artemis
21
Temple of Artemis
The Temple of Artemis (Greek:
Apt£|iLO"Lov, or Artemis ion), also known less
precisely as the Temple of Diana, was a
Greek temple dedicated to a goddess Greeks
identified as Artemis and was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It
was located in Ephesus (near the modern
town of Selcuk in present-day Turkey), and
was completely rebuilt three times before its
eventual destruction in 401. Only
foundations and sculptural fragments of the
latest of the temples at the site remain.
The first sanctuary (temenos) antedated the
Ionic immigration by many years, and dates
to the Bronze Age. Callimachus, in his
Hymn to Artemis, attributed it to the
Amazons. In the 7th century the old temple was destroyed by a flood. Its reconstruction began around 550 BC, under
the Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son Metagenes, at the expense of Croesus of Lydia: the project took 10
years to complete, only to be destroyed in an act of arson by Herostratus. It was later rebuilt.
Antipater of Sidon, who compiled the list of the Seven Wonders, describes the finished temple:
I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the
Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high
pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the
clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, "Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never
Model of Temple of Artemis, Miniatiirk Park, Istanbul, Turkey
looked on aught so grand
., [2]
Temple of Artemis
22
Location and history
The Temple of Artemis was located near the ancient city of Ephesus, about
50 km south from the modern port city of Izmir, in Turkey. Today the site
lies on the edge of the modern town of Selcuk.
Earliest phase
The sacred site (temenos) at Ephesus was far older than the Artemision
itself. Pausanias was certain that it antedated the Ionic immigration by
many years, being older even than the oracular shrine of Apollo at Didyma.
He said that the pre-Ionic inhabitants of the city were Leleges and Lydians.
Callimachus, in his Hymn to Artemis, attributed the earliest temenos at
Ephesus to the Amazons, whose worship he imagines already centered
upon an image (bretas) of Artemis, their patron goddess.
Modern archaeology cannot confirm Pausanias' Amazons, but his account
of the site's antiquity seems well-founded. Before World War I, site
mi
excavations by David George Hogarth identified three successive temple
buildings. Re-excavations in 1987-88 confirmed that the site was
occupied as early as the Bronze Age, with a sequence of pottery finds that
extend forward to Middle Geometric times, when the clay-floored
peripteral temple was constructed, in the second half of the 8th century
BC. The peripteral temple at Ephesus offers the earliest example of a peripteral type on the coast of Asia Minor,
and perhaps the earliest Greek temple surrounded by colonnades anywhere.
171
In the 7th century, a flood destroyed the temple,
depositing over half a meter of sand and flotsam over a
floor of hard-packed clay. Among the flood debris were
the remains of a carved ivory plaque of a griffin and the
Tree of Life, apparently North Syrian, and a number of
drilled tear-shaped amber drops of elliptical
cross-section. These probably once dressed a wooden
effigy (xoanon) of the Lady of Ephesus, which must
have been destroyed or recovered from the flood.
Bammer notes that though the site was prone to
flooding, and raised by silt deposits about two metres
between the eighth and 6th centuries, and a further 2.4
m between the sixth and the fourth, its continued use
"indicates that maintaining the identity of the actual
location played an important role in the sacred
■ t - " [8]
organization .
Synthesizing Artemis of Ephesus: an
1 8th-century engraving of a Roman marble
copy of a Greek replica of a lost Geometric
period xoanon.
The Temple of Artemis, as imagined in this hand-coloured engraving
by Martin Heemskerck (1498 - 1574), has the "old-fashioned" look
of Santa Maria Novella in Florence and other Italian quattrocento
churches of the previous generation.
Second phase
The new temple was sponsored at least in part by Croesus, who founded Lydia's empire and was overlord of
191
Ephesus, and was designed and constructed from around 550 BC by the Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son
Metagenes. It was some 377' long and 180' wide, supposedly the first Greek temple built of marble. Its peripteral
Temple of Artemis 23
columns stood some 40 feet high, in double rows that formed a wide ceremonial passage around the cella that
housed the goddess' cult image. Thirty-six of these columns were, according to Pliny, decorated by carvings in relief.
A new ebony or blackened grapewood cult statue was sculpted by Endoios, and a naiskos to house it was erected
east of the open-air altar.
A rich foundation deposit from this era yielded more than a thousand items, including what may be the earliest coins
made from the silver-gold alloy electrum. Fragments of bas-relief on the lowest drums of the temple, preserved in
the British Museum, show that the enriched columns of the later temple, of which a few survive {illustration, below
right) were versions of this earlier feature. Pliny the Elder, seemingly unaware of the ancient continuity of the sacred
site, claims that the new temple's architects chose to build it on marshy ground as a precaution against earthquakes.
The temple became an important attraction, visited by merchants, kings, and sightseers, many of whom paid homage
to Artemis in the form of jewelry and various goods. It also offered sanctuary to those fleeing persecution or
punishment, a tradition linked in myth to the Amazons who twice fled there seeking the goddess' protection from
punishment, firstly by Dionysus and later, by Heracles.
Destruction by Herostratus
The "Croesus" Temple was destroyed on July 21, 356 BC, probably very soon after its completion, in a vainglorious
act of arson: one Herostratus set fire to the roof-beams, seeking fame at any cost, thus the term herostraticfame.
A man was found to plan the burning of the temple of Ephesian Diana so that through the destruction of
this most beautiful building his name might be spread through the whole world.
The Ephesians, outraged, sentenced Herostratus to death and forbade anyone from mentioning his name, under pain
ri2i
of death. However, Theopompus later noted the name. The burning supposedly coincided with the birth of
ri3i
Alexander the Great; Plutarch remarked that Artemis was too preoccupied with Alexander's delivery to save her
burning temple.
Third phase
The Ephesians tactfully refused Alexander's offer to pay for the temple's rebuilding, and eventually rebuilt it after his
death, at their own expense. Work started in 323 BC and continued for many years. The third temple was larger than
the second; 450' long by 225' wide and 60 feet high, with more than 127 columns. Athenagoras of Athens names
Endoeus, a pupil of Daedalus, as sculptor of Artemis' main cult image. Pausanias (c. 2nd century AD) reports
another image and altar in the Temple, dedicated to Artemis Protothronia (Artemis "of the first seat") and a gallery
of images above this altar, including an ancient figure of Nyx (the primordial goddess of Night) by the sculptor
Rhoecus (6th century BC). Pliny describes images of Amazons, the legendary founders of Ephesus and Ephesian
Artemis' original proteges, carved by Scopas. Literary sources describe the temple's adornment by paintings, gilded
columns of gold and silver, and religious works of renowned Greek sculptors Polyclitus, Pheidias, Cresilas, and
Phradmon.
Temple of Artemis
24
Drum from the base of a column from the
4th-century rebuilding (British Museum)
This reconstruction survived some 600 years, and appears multiple
times in early Christian accounts of Ephesus. According to the New
Testament, the appearance of the first Christian missionary in Ephesus
caused locals to fear for the temple's dishonor. The 2nd-century
Acts of John includes an apocryphal tale of the temple's destruction: the
apostle John prayed publicly in the Temple of Artemis, exorcising its
demons and "of a sudden the altar of Artemis split in many pieces...
and half the temple fell down," instantly converting the Ephesians, who
wept, prayed or took flight. Against this, a Roman edict of 162 AD
acknowledges the importance of Artemesion, the annual Ephesian
festival to Artemis, and officially extends it from a few holy days over
March— April to a whole month, "one of the largest and most
1171
magnificent religious festivals in Ephesus' liturgical calendar".
In 268 AD, the Temple was destroyed or damaged in a raid by the
11 81
Goths, an East Germanic tribe. in the time of emperor Gallienus:
1191
"Respa, Veduc and Thuruar, leaders of the Goths, took ship and
sailed across the strait of the Hellespont to Asia. There they laid waste
many populous cities and set fire to the renowned temple of Diana at
Ephesus," reported Jordanes in Getica
[20]
Thereafter it may have been rebuilt, or repaired but this is uncertain, as its later history is highly unclear and the
torching of the temple by the Goths may have brought it to a final end. At least some of the stones from the temple
T211
were used in construction of other buildings. Some of the columns in Hagia Sophia originally belonged to the
T221
temple of Artemis, and the Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai records the re-use of several statues and other
decorative elements throughout Constantinople.
The main primary sources for the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus are Pliny the Elder's Natural History XXXVI. xxi. 95
T231 r241 T251
, Pomponius Mela i: 17 , and Plutarch's Life of Alexander III. 5 (referencing the burning of the Artemis earn).
Rediscovery of the temple
After sixty years of searching, the site of the temple
was rediscovered in 1869 by an expedition led by John
Turtle Wood and sponsored by the British Museum.
These excavations continued until 1874. A few
further fragments of sculpture were found during the
1904-06 excavations directed by David George
Hogarth. The recovered sculptured fragments of the
4th-century rebuilding and a few from the earlier
temple, which had been used in the rubble fill for the
rebuilding, were assembled and displayed in the
T271
"Ephesus Room" of the British Museum.
Today the site of the temple, which lies just outside
Selcuk, is marked by a single column constructed of
dissociated fragments discovered on the site.
The site of the temple today.
Temple of Artemis 25
Cult and influence
The archaic temeton beneath the later Temples clearly housed some form of "Great Goddess" but nothing is known
of her cult. The literary accounts that describe it as "Amazonian" refer to the later founder-myths of Greek emigres
who developed the cult and temple of Artemis Ephesia. The wealth and splendour of temple and city were taken as
evidence of Artemis Ephesia's power, and were the basis for her local and international prestige: despite the
successive traumas of Temple destruction, each rebuilding — a gift and honour to the goddess — brought further
.. [28]
prosperity.
Artemis' shrines, temples and festivals {Artemisia) could be found throughout the Greek world, but Ephesian Artemis
was unique. The Ephesians considered her theirs, and resented any foreign claims to her protection. Once Persia
ousted and replaced their Lydian overlord Croesus, the Ephesians played down his contribution to the Temple's
restoration. On the whole, the Persians dealt fairly with Ephesus, but removed some religious artifacts from Artemis'
[291
Temple to Sardis and brought Persian priests into her Ephesian cult; this was not forgiven. When Alexander
conquered the Persians, his offer to finance the Temple's second rebuilding was politely but firmly refused.
Ephesian Artemis lent her city's diplomacy a powerful religious edge.
Under Hellenic rule, and later, under Roman rule, the Ephesian Artemisia festival was increasingly promoted as a
key element in the pan-Hellenic festival circuit. It was part of a definitively Greek political and cultural identity,
essential to the economic life of the region, and an excellent opportunity for young, unmarried Greeks of both sexes
to seek out marriage partners. Games, contests and theatrical performances were held in the goddess' name, and
Pliny describes her procession as a magnificent crowd-puller; one of Apelles' best paintings showed the goddess'
image, carried through the streets and surrounded by maidens. In the Roman Imperial era, the emperor
[32]
Commodus lent his name to the festival games, and might have sponsored them.
Ephesian Artemis
From the Greek point of view Ephesian Artemis is a distinctive form of their goddess Artemis. In Greek cult and
myth, Artemis is the twin of Apollo, a virgin huntress who supplanted the Titan Selene as goddess of the Moon. At
Ephesus, a goddess whom the Greeks associated with Artemis was venerated in an archaic, certainly pre-Hellenic
[331
cult image that was carved of wood and kept decorated with jewelry. Robert Fleischer identified as decorations of
the primitive xoanon the changeable features that since Minucius Felix and Jerome's Christian attacks on pagan
popular religion had been read as many breasts or "eggs" — denoting her fertility (others interpret the objects to
represent the testicles of sacrificed bulls that would have been strung on the image, with similar meaning). Most
similar to Near-Eastern and Egyptian deities, and least similar to Greek ones, her body and legs are enclosed within a
tapering pillar-like term, from which her feet protrude. On the coins minted at Ephesus, the apparently
many-breasted goddess wears a mural crown (like a city's walls), an attribute of Cybele (see polos). On the coins she
rests either arm on a staff formed of entwined serpents or of a stack of ouroboroi, the eternal serpent with its tail in
its mouth. Something the Lady of Ephesus had in common with Cybele was that each was served by temple
slave-women, or hierodules (hiero "holy", doule "female slave"), under the direction of a priestess who inherited her
[34] [35]
role, attended by a college of eunuch priests called "Megabyzoi" and also by young virgins (korai).
Temple of Artemis
26
The "eggs" or "breasts" of the Lady of Ephesus, it now appears, must
be the iconographic descendants of the amber gourd-shaped drops,
elliptical in cross-section and drilled for hanging, that were
rediscovered in the excavations of 1987-88; they remained in situ
where the ancient wooden cult figure of the Lady of Ephesus had
been caught by an 8th-century flood (see History below). This form of
breast-jewelry, then, had already been developed by the Geometric
Period. A hypothesis offered by Gerard Seiterle, that the objects in
Classical representations represented bulls' scrotal sacs cannot be
maintained
[37]
[38]
Mi:
Traditional many-breasted interpretation in a
16th-century fountain of Diana Efesina, Villa
d'Este
A votive inscription mentioned by Florence Mary Bennett, which
dates probably from about the 3rd century BC, associates Ephesian
Artemis with Crete: "To the Healer of diseases, to Apollo, Giver of
Light to mortals, Eutyches has set up in votive offering [a statue of]
the Cretan Lady of Ephesus, the Light-Bearer."
The Greek habits of syncretism assimilated all foreign gods under
some form of the Olympian pantheon familiar to them — in
interpretatio graeca — and it is clear that at Ephesus, the
identification with Artemis that the Ionian settlers made of the "Lady of Ephesus" was slender. The Christian
approach was at variance with the tolerant syncretistic approach of pagans to gods who were not theirs. A Christian
[39]
inscription at Ephesus suggests why so little remains at the site:
"Destroying the delusive image of the demon Artemis, Demeas has erected this symbol of Truth, the
God that drives away idols, and the Cross of priests, deathless and victorious sign of Christ."
The assertion that the Ephesians thought that their cult image had fallen from the
sky, though it was a familiar origin-myth at other sites, is only known at Ephesus
from Acts 19:35:
"What man is there that knoweth not how that the city of the
Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and of the
[image] which fell down from Jupiter?"
Lynn LiDonnici observes that modern scholars are likely to be more concerned
with origins of the Lady of Ephesus and her iconology than her adherents were at
any point in time, and are prone to creating a synthetic account of the Lady of
Ephesus by drawing together documentation that ranges over more than a
millennium in its origins, creating a falsified, unitary picture, as of an
unchanging icon.
References
Notes
[1] John Freely, The Western Shores of Turkey: Discovering the Aegean and Mediterranean Coasts
2004, p. 148; Clive Foss, Ephesus after antiquity: a late antique, Byzantine, and Turkish city,
Cambridge University Press, 1979, pp. 86 - 87 & footnote 83. (http://books.google.co.uk/
books?id=i6Q8AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PR7&ots=cz_UVafPvu&dq=Artemis Ephesus John
Chrysostom mob&lr=lang_en&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q&f=false)
[2] Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58.
[3] Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.2.6.
[4] D.G. Hogarth, editor, 1908. Excavations at Ephesus.
The Lady of Ephesus, 1st century
AD (Ephesus Archaeological
Museum)
Temple of Artemis 27
[5] Anton Bammer, "A Peripteros" of the Geometric Period in the Artemision of Ephesus" Anatolian Studies 40 (1990), pp. 137-160.
[6] Bammer, 1990, p. 142. noted some still earlier placements of stones, Mycenaean pottery and crude clay animal figurines, but warned "it is still
to early to come to conclusions about a cult sequence."
[7] The flood is dated by fragmentary ceramics: Bammer, 1990, p. 141.
[8] Bammer, 1990, p.144.
[9] Herodotus' statement to this effect is confirmed by the conjectural reading of a fragmentary dedicatory inscription, conserved in the British
Museum (A Guide to the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum 84).
[10] Pliny's Natural History, 16.79.213-16; Pliny's source was the Roman Mucianus, who thought that the cult image by an "Endoios" was
extremely ancient, however. Endoios' name appears in late sixth-century Attic inscriptions, and Pausanias notes works attributed to him. Most
importantly, the Ephesians of Mucianus' time maintained the tradition that a particular sculptor had created the remade image (LiDonnici
1992:398.)
[11] Valerius Maximus, VIII. 14.ext.5 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Valerius_Maximus/8*.html#14.ext.5)
[12] Smith, William (1849). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1547.
html), pp. 439. . Retrieved July 21, 2009.
[13] Plutarch, Life of Alexander.
[14] Pausanias, 10.38.6 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.l0.38.6&lang=original), trans Jones and Ormerod, 1918,
from perseus.org. For Artemis Protothronia as a separate aspect of Ephesian cult to Artemis, see Strelan, R., Paul, Artemis, and the Jews in
Ephesus, de Gruyter, 1996, p. 157. (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nwlxdz7f018C&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=Ephesus+
Nyx& source=bl&ots=B3Uyn71L 1 v& sig=wVIY0axqXi_82OMkpLwl3 AA 1 M 1 0&hl=en&ei=nJJlTbyTCI-r8QOX_W9B w& sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Ephesus Nyx&f=false)
[15] Acts 19:27
[16] Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400 1984, p 26.
[17] Rick Strelan, Paul, Artemis, and the Jews in Ephesus, 1996, 57 - 58 and footnote 83. (http://books.google.co. uk/books?hl=en&
lr=lang_en&id=nwlxdz7f018C&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Ephesus+Artemisia&ots=B3UyoelK5D&
sig=IbYDOyUDwn2DUD8Ahqv-Tfly-bs#v=onepage&q=Ephesus Artemisia&f=falsepp.) The edict was made as a form of official apology
and compensation; a senior Roman official had unwittingly offended the goddess by conducting business during one or more of her holy days.
The political, economic and religious importance of Ephesian Artemis was undiminished, more than one hundred years after Paul's visit.
[18] 268: Herwig Wolfram, Thomas J. Dunlap, tr., History of the Goths (1979) 1988 p.52f, correlating multiple sources, corrects the date of the
Gothic advance into the Aegean against the Origo Gothica, which scrambles the events of several years, giving 267 for this event.
[19] Respa, Veduco, Thurar. these names are otherwise unknown (Wolfram 1988, p. 52 and note 84).
[20] Jordanes, Getica xx.107.
[21] Clive Foss, Ephesus after antiquity: a late antique, Byzantine, and Turkish city, Cambridge University Press, 1979, pp. 86 - 87 & footnote
83. (http://books.google.co. uk/books?id=i6Q8AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PR7&ots=cz_UVafPvu&dq=Artemis Ephesus John Chrysostom mob&
lr=lang_en&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q&f=false)
[22] St. Sophia Construction for the Third Time (http://www.exploreturkey.com/exptur.phtml?id=176)
[23] http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/36*.html#95
[24] http://ourworld-top.cs.com/latintexts/mll7.htm
[25] http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/3.html#3.5
[26] "Ephesos - An Ancient Metropolis: Exploration and History" (http://www.oeai.at/eng/ausland/geschichte.html). Austrian
Archaeological Institute. October 2008. . Retrieved 2009-1 1-01.
[27] The sculptures were published in the British Museum Catalogue of Sculpture, vol. II, part VI.
[28] Gregory Stevenson, Power and place: Temple and identity in the Book of Revelation, de Gruyter, 2001, p. 77, citing Aelius Aristides,
Concerning Concord, 25. For an exposition of the mechanisms involved in these social, religious and economic advantages, see Stevenson,
2001, pp. 70 - 80 ff.
[29] LiDonnici, p.401.
[30] The intended offering might have included a divine statue of Alexander himself, or simply an inscription commemorating his subsidy as a
gift to the Goddess, with himself as her particular protege. The Ephesians protested with great diplomacy, it being "inappropriate for a god to
dedicate offerings to a god". See Strabo, Geography, 14.1.22, variously interpreted in Strelan, p. 80, and Gregory Stevenson, Power and place:
Temple and identity in the Book of Revelation, de Gruyter, 2001, p. 79. (http://books. google. co.uk/books?id=4vRPx7UjynOC&
pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=Strabo+14.1.22&source=bl&ots=y_LhP8byqz&sig=qXZWte419JjyEXejmrAQXKvDcso&hl=en&
ei=eOlnTZ_cG9Cx8QOzsoCMBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Strabo 14.1.
22&f=false)
[31] Pliny the Elder, Natural History:, 35 - 93.
[32] Irene Ringwood Arnold, "Festivals of Ephesus", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 1 (January, 1972), p 18, citing Xenophon
for marriage-broking at the Ephesian Artemesia.
[33] The iconic images have been most thoroughly assembled by Robert Fleischer, Artemis von Ephesos und der erwandte Kultstatue von
Anatolien und Syrien EPRO 35 (Leiden: Brill) 1973.
[34] Strabo, Geographica, 14.1.23<; sometimes the existence of a college is disputed and rather, a succession of priests given the title of
"Megabyzos" is preferred.
Temple of Artemis 28
[35] Xenophon, Anabasis, v.3.7.
[36] Seiterle, "Artemis: die Grosse Gottin von Ephesos" Antike Welt 10 (1979), pp 3-16, accepted in the 1980s by Walter Burkert and Brita
Alroth, among others, criticised and rejected by Robert Fleischer, but widely popularized.
[37] Fleischer, "Neues zur kleinasiatischen Kultstatue" Archdologischer Anzeiger 98 1983:81-93: Bammer 1990:153.
[38] Florence Mary Bennett, Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons (1912): Chapter III: Ephesian Artemis ( on-line text (http://www.
sacred-texts.com/wmn/rca/rca04.htm)).
[39] Quoted in Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire AD 100-400 1984, ch. Ill "Christianity as presented" p. 18.
[40] Lynn R. LiDonnici, "The Images of Artemis Ephesia and Greco-Roman Worship: A Reconsideration" The Harvard Theological Review
85.4 (October 1992), pp 389-415.
Bibliography
• Anton Bammer, "A Peripteros" of the Geometric Period in the Artemision of Ephesus" Anatolian Studies 40
(1990), pp. 137-160.
• Lynn R. LiDonnici, "The Images of Artemis Ephesia and Greco-Roman Worship: A Reconsideration" The
Harvard Theological Review 85 A (October 1992), pp. 389-415.
• Irene Ringwood Arnold, "Festivals of Ephesus", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 1 (January,
1972), pp. 17-22.
External links
• Temple of Artemis (http://www.britishmuseum.Org/explore/highlights/article_index/a/
the_archaic_temple_of_artemis.aspx) (Ephesos) objects at the British Museum website
• Florence Mary Bennett, Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons: (1912) (http://www.sacred-texts.com/
wmn/rca/rca04.htm): Chapter III: Ephesian Artemis (text)
• James Grout: Temple of Artemis, part of the Encyclopaedia Romana (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/
encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/artemis.html)
• Diana's Temple at Ephesus (http://penelope.uchicago.edU/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Turkey/
_Periods/Greek/_Texts/LETGKB/Ephesus*.html) (W. R. Lethaby, 1908)
• Pictures of the current situation (http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/artemis)
Statue of Zeus at Olympia
29
Statue of Zeus at Olympia
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was made by the Greek sculptor
Phidias, circa 432 BC on the site where it was erected in the Temple of
Zeus, Olympia, Greece. It was one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World
[l]
A fanciful reconstruction of Phidias' statue of
Zeus, in an engraving made by Philippe Galle in
1572, from a drawing by Maarten van
Heemskerck
Description
The seated statue, some 12 meters (43 feet) tall, occupied half of the
width of the aisle of the temple built to house it. "It seems that if Zeus
were to stand up," the geographer Strabo noted early in the 1st century
BC, "he would unroof the temple." The Zeus was a chryselephantine
sculpture, made of ivory and gold-plated bronze. No copy in marble or
bronze has survived, though there are recognizable but approximate
versions on coins of nearby Elis and on Roman coins and engraved
gems. A very detailed description of the sculpture and its throne was recorded by the traveler Pausanias, in the 2nd
century AD. The sculpture was wreathed with shoots of olive worked in gold and seated on a magnificent throne of
cedarwood, inlaid with ivory, gold, ebony, and precious stones - a most extravagant image of ancient furniture. In
Zeus' right hand there was a small statue of crowned Nike, goddess of victory, also chryselephantine, and in his left
Ml
hand, a sceptre inlaid with gold, on which an eagle perched. Plutarch, in his Life of the Roman general Aemilius
Paulus, records that the victor over Macedon, when he beheld the statue, "was moved to his soul, as if he had seen
the god in person," while the 1st century AD Greek orator Dio Chrysostom declared that a single glimpse of the
statue would make a man forget all his earthly troubles
[5]
The date of the statue, in the third quarter of the 5th century BC, long a
subject of debate, was confirmed archaeologically by the rediscovery
and excavation of Phidias' workshop.
According to a legend, when Phidias was asked what inspired
him — whether he climbed Mount Olympus to see Zeus, or whether
Zeus came down from Olympus so that Pheidias could see him — the
artist answered that he portrayed Zeus according to Book One, verses
528 — 530 of Homer's Iliad:
. [6]
Roman Seated Zeus, marble and bronze
(restored), following the type established by
Phidias (Hermitage Museum)
Statue of Zeus at Olympia
30
fj Kal Kvaverjoiv en' ocpgvoi vevoe Kqovlcov
a^Qoaiai 5' aga xaitai ejieggcboavto avamog
Kgarog cut' adavaroio /.teyav S' eMh^ev "Okv(.uiov.
He spoke, the son of Kronos, and nodded his head
with the dark brows,
and the immortally anointed hair of the great god
swept from his divine head, and all Olympos was
shaken.
[7]
Coin of Elis illustrating the Olympian Zeus (Nordisk
familjebok)
The sculptor also was reputed to have immortalised his eromenos, Pantarkes, by carving "Pantarkes kalos" into the
god's little finger, and placing a relief of the boy crowning himself at the feet of the statue
[8]
Loss and destruction
According to Suetonius, the Roman Emperor Caligula "gave orders that such statues of the gods as were especially
famous for their sanctity or for their artistic merit, including that of Zeus at Olympia, should be brought from
191
Greece, in order to remove their heads and put his own in their place." Caligula was assassinated in AD 41. In
Rome other interpretations were placed on the phenomenon: according to Suetonius, Caligula's "approaching murder
was foretold by many prodigies. The statue of Jupiter at Olympia, which he had ordered to be taken to pieces and
moved to Rome, suddenly uttered such a peal of laughter that the scaffolding collapsed and the workmen took to
their heels.
.,[10]
The circumstances of its eventual destruction are a source of debate:
the 11th-century Byzantine historian Georgios Kedrenos recorded
the tradition that it was carried off to Constantinople, where it was
destroyed in the great fire of the Lauseion, in AD 475. Others argue
that it perished with the temple when it burned in 425. According to
Lucian of Samosata in the later 2nd century, "they have laid hands on
your person at Olympia, my lord High-Thunderer, and you had not the
energy to wake the dogs or call in the neighbours; surely they might
have come to the rescue and caught the fellows before they had
finished packing up the swag
..[13]
The workshop of Phidias at Olympia
Phidias' workshop rediscovered
Perhaps the greatest discovery came in 1954—1958 with the excavation of the workshop at Olympia where Phidias
created the statue. Tools, terracotta moulds and a cup inscribed "I belong to Pheidias" were found here, just where
the traveler Pausanias said the Zeus was constructed. This has enabled archaeologists to re-create the
techniques used to make the great work and confirm its date.
References
[1] Statue of Zeus (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078346/Statue-of-Zeus) from encyclopaediabritannica.com (http://www.
britannica.com/). Retrieved 22 November 2006
[2] Alaa K. Ashmawy, "The Seven Wonders: The Statue of Zeus at Olympia" (http://www.authenticwonders.com/Wonders/zeus.html)
Retrieved on 2 December 2001.
[3] Gisela M. A. Richter, "The Pheidian Zeus at Olympia" Hesperia 35 .2 (April— June 1966: 166-170) p. 166f, 170. Details of the sculpture in this
article are corroborated in the Richter article.
[4] "On his head is a sculpted wreath of olive sprays. In his right hand he holds a figure of Victory made from ivory and gold. In his left hand, he
holds a sceptre inlaid with every kind of metal, with an eagle perched on the sceptre. His sandals are made of gold, and his robe is also gold.
Statue of Zeus at Olympia 31
His garments are carved with animals and with lilies. The throne is decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony, and ivory." (Pausanias,
Description of Greece 5.1 1.1-.10). Pausanias was informed that the paintings on the throne were by the brother of Phidias, Panaenus.
[5] Or. 12.51 (http://penelope.uchicago.edU/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/ 12*. html#51)
[6] Zamarovsky, Vojtech. Za sedmi divy sveta. pp. 186.
[7] Iliad, I, 528-530 (http://www.library.northwestern.edu/homer/html/application.html)
[8] Sex in the Ancient World from A to Z, by John Grimes Younger, p.95. Routledge; Abingdon and New York, 2005.
[9] Suetonius, Gaius 2.2; compare Cassius Dio, 59.28.3.
[10] Suetonius, Gaius, 57.1
[11] Georgius Kedrenos, Historiarum Compendium §322c, in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae 34, vol. I, p. 564, according to Richter
1966 note 1.
[12] Schobel 1965; Richter 1966.
[13] Lucian's dialogue Timon the Misanthrope, translated by H. W. Fowler And F. G. Fowler.
[14] "Phidias", Oxford Dictionary of Art, e-Notes.com (http://www.enotes.com/oxford-art-encyclopedia/phidias)
[15] K. Kris Hirst, "A Walking Tour of Olympia, Greece", about.com (http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientgreece/ss/olympia_tour_6.
htm)
[16] "Olympia, Workshop of Pheidias", Perseus Building Catalog, about.com (http:// archaeology. about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite. htm?zi=l/
XJ&sdn=archaeology&zu=http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text: 1999. 04. 0039&
amp;query=Olympia%2C%20Workshop%20of%20Pheidias)
Bibliography
• Kenneth D. S. Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary in the Ancient Mediterranean World, Oxford University Press
(2001) ISBN 0198153112
• Alfred Mallwitz and Wolfgang Schiering, Die Werkstatt des Pheidias in Olympia I: Olympische Forschungen V,
Berlin: Walter de Grayter (1964)
• Wolfgang Schiering, Die Werkstatt des Pheidias in Olympia II: Werkstattfunde: Olympische Forschungen XVIII,
Berlin: Walter de Gruyter (1991) (http://books. google. com/books?id=6QCxCMtsIP4C&dq="die+werkstatt+
des+pheidias+in+olympia"&psp=l) ISBN 3110124688
External links
• "The Statue of Zeus at Olympia" (http://www.authenticwonders.com/Wonders/zeus.html)
• Colin Delaney, "A Wonder to Behold: The Statue of Olympian Zeus" (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cll35/
Students/Colin_Delaney/final2.html)
• Archaeopaedia: Statue of Zeus (http://traumwerk.stanford.edu:3455/Archaeopaedia/244) With bibliography
• (Ellen Papakyriakou) Olympia: Art: the chryselephantine statue of Zeus (http://www.sikyon.com/01ympia/
Art/olymp_egOOa.html)
• Michael Lahanas, "The colossal Zeus statue of Pheidias" (http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Arts/ZeusStatue.
htm)
• David Fenzl "Recreating Olympic Statuary" (http://daapspace4.daap.uc.edu/~fenzlda/olympia.htm)
• History.com: the Seven Wonders (http://www.history.com/content/sevenwonders)
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
32
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or
Tomb of Mausolus (in Greek,
Mavawkelov zrjg AhKagvaaaov) was a
tomb built between 353 and 350 BCE at
Halicarnassus (present Bodrum, Turkey) for
Mausolus, a satrap in the Persian Empire,
and Artemisia II of Caria, his wife and
sister. The structure was designed by the
Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of
Priene
[2][3]
The Mausoleum stood approximately 45 m
(unknown operator: u'strong 1 ft) in height,
and each of the four sides was adorned with
sculptural reliefs created by each one of four
Greek sculptors — Leochares, Bryaxis,
Scopas of Paros and Timotheus. The
finished structure of the mauloseum was
considered to be such an aesthetic triumph
that Antipater of Sidon identified it as one of
his Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The word mausoleum has now come to be
used generically for grand tomb.
Conquest
In 623 BCE, Halicarnassus was the capital
of a small regional kingdom in the coast of
Asia Minor. In 377 BCE the ruler of the
region, Hecatomnus of Milas, died and left
the control of the kingdom to his son,
Mausolus. Hecatomnus, a local satrap under
the Persians, took control of several of the
neighboring cities and districts. After
Artemisia and Mausolus, he had several
other daughters and sons: Ada (adopted
mother of Alexander the Great), Idrieus and
Pixodarus. Mausolus extended its territory
as far as the southwest coast of Anatolia.
Artemisia and Mausolus ruled from
Halicarnassus over the surrounding territory
for twenty-four years. Mausolus,
Scale model of the Mausoleum at Miniatiirk, Istanbul.
The Mausoleum site in ruins, as it is today.
although descended from local people, spoke Greek
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
33
This lion is among the few free-standing sculptures from the Mausoleum at the
British Museum.
and admired the Greek way of life and
government. He founded many cities of
Greek design along the coast and
encouraged Greek democratic traditions .
Halicarnassus
Mausolus decided to build a new capital; a
city as safe from capture as it was
magnificent to be seen. He chose the city of
Halicarnassus. If Mausolus' ships blocked a
small channel, they could keep all enemy
warships out. His workmen deepened the
city's harbor and used the dragged sand to
make protecting breakwaters in front of the
channel. On land they paved streets and
squares, and built houses for ordinary
citizens. And on one side of the harbor they
built a massive fortified palace for
Mausolus, positioned to have clear views
out to sea and inland to the hills — places
from where enemies could attack.
On land, the workmen also built walls and
watchtowers, a Greek— style theatre and a
temple to Ares — the Greek god of war.
Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge
amounts of tax money to embellish the city.
They commissioned statues, temples and
buildings of gleaming marble. On a hill
overlooking the city Artemisia planned to
place a resting place for her body, and her
husband's, after their death. It would be a
tomb that would forever show how rich they were.
In 353 BCE Mausolus died, leaving Artemisia to rule alone. As a tribute to him, she decided to build him a tomb so
famous that Mausolus's name is now the eponym for all stately tombs, in the word mausoleum. The construction was
also so beautiful and unique it became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Artemisia lived for only two years after the death of her husband. The urns with their
nun?
The design of the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne was inspired by that of the
Mausoleum.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
34
The Masonic House of the Temple of the Scottish Rite, Washington, DC, John
Russell Pope, architect, 1911—15, another scholarly version.
ashes were placed in the yet unfinished
tomb. As a form of sacrifice ritual the
bodies of a large number of dead animals
were placed on the stairs leading to the
tomb, and then the stairs were filled with
stones and rubble, sealing the access.
According to the historian Pliny the Elder,
the craftsmen decided to stay and finish the
work after the death of their patron
"considering that it was at once a memorial
of his own fame and of the sculptor's art."
Construction of the
Mausoleum
Artemisia spared no expense in building the
tomb. She sent messengers to Greece to find
the most talented artists of the time. These included Scopas, the man who had supervised the rebuilding of the temple
of Artemis at Ephesus. The famous sculptors were (in the Vitruvius order) Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas and
Timotheus, as well as hundreds of other craftsmen.
The tomb was erected on a hill overlooking the city. The whole structure sat in an enclosed courtyard. At the center
of the courtyard was a stone platform on which the tomb sat. A stairway flanked by stone lions led to the top of the
platform, which bore along its outer walls many statues of gods and goddess. At each corner, stone warriors mounted
on horseback guarded the tomb. At the center of the platform, the marble tomb rose as a square tapering block to
one-third of the Mausoleum's 45 m (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) height. This section was covered with
bas-reliefs showing action scenes, including the battle of the centaurs with the lapiths and Greeks in combat with the
Amazons, a race of warrior women.
On the top of this section of the tomb thirty-six slim columns, ten per side, with each corner sharing one column
between two sides; rose for another third of the height. Standing between each [pair of] column[s] was a statue.
Behind the columns was a solid cella-like block that carried the weight of the tomb's massive roof. The roof, which
comprised most of the final third of the height, was pyramidal. Perched on the top was a quadriga: four massive
horses pulling a chariot in which rode images of Mausolus and Artemisia.
History
Modern historians have pointed out that two years would not be enough time to decorate and build such an
extravagant building. Therefore, it is believed that construction was begun by Mausolus before his death or
continued by the next leaders. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus resembled a temple and the only way to tell the
difference was its slightly higher outer walls. The Mausoleum was in the Greek-dominated area of Halicarnassus,
which was in 353 was controlled by the Persian Empire. According to the Roman architect Vitruvius, it was built by
Satyros and Pytheus who wrote a treatise about it; this treatise is now lost. Pausanias adds that the Romans
considered the Mausoleum one of the great wonders of the world and it was for that reason that they called all their
magnificent tombs mausolea, after it. It is unknown exactly when and how the Mausoleum came to ruin, but
according to Eustathius in the 12th century on his commentary of the Iliad, "it was and is a wonder". We are
therefore led to believe that the building was likely ruined, likely by an earthquake, between this period and 1402,
ro]
when the Knights of St. John arrived.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 35
In 1846 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe obtained permission to remove bas-reliefs from the Budrum. This piece was
originally part of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus but was removed by St. John's Knights. An expedition was sent
by the British government after Mr. Charles Newton discovered the site of the Mausoleum. This site was originally
indicated by professor Donaldson. The expedition lasted 3 years and ended in the sending of the marbles.
All that remained by the 19th century were the foundations and some broken sculptures. Many of the stones from the
mausoleum were used by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem to fortify their castle of Bodrum. Much of the marble
was burned into lime. The underground burial chamber was broken into and destroyed by grave robbers; however in
1972 there was still enough remaining to create a layout of the chambers when being excavated.
This monument was ranked the seventh wonder of the world by the ancients, not because of its size or strength but
ri2i
because of the beauty of its design and how it was decorated with sculpture or ornaments. The mausoleum was
Halicarnassus' principle architectural monument, standing in a dominant position on rising ground above the harbor."
[13]
Dimensions and statues
Much of the information we have gathered about the Mausoleum and its structure have come from a Roman
historian Pliny. He wrote some basic facts about the architecture and some dimensions. The building was
rectangular, not square, surrounded by a colonnade of thirty-six columns. There was a pyramidal superstructure
receding in twenty four steps to the summit. On top there were 4 horse chariots of marble. The building was accented
with both sculptural friezes and free standing figures. "The free standing figures were arranged on 5 or 6 different
ri4i 1
levels. We are now able to justify that Pliny s knowledge came from a work written by the architect. It is clear
that Pliny did not grasp the design of the mausoleum fully which creates problems in recreating the structure.
However he does state many facts which help the reader recreate pieces of the puzzle. Other writings by Pausanias,
Strabo, and Vitruvius also help us to gather more information about the Mausoleum. These Ancient authors
describe the building's appearance and gave dimensions. According to Pliny the mausoleum was 63 ft. north and
south, shorter on other fronts, 411 ft. circumference, and 25 cubics (37ft. 6 in.) in heights. It was surrounded by 36
columns. They called this part the pteron. Above the pteron there was a pyramid on top with 24 steps and equal in
height to the lower part. The height of the whole work was 140 ft. The only other author that gives the dimensions
of the Mausoleum is Hyginus a grammarian in the time of Augustus. He describes the monument as built with
shining stones, 80ft high and 1340ft in circumference. He likely meant cubits which would match Pliny's dimensions
ri7i
exactly but this text is largely considered corrupt and is of little importance. We learn from Vitruvius that Satyrus
and Phytheus wrote a description of their work which Pliny likely read. Pliny likely wrote down these dimensions
n si
without thinking about the form of the building.
A number of statues were found slightly larger than life size, either 5 ft. in. or 5 ft. 3 in. in length these were 20
lion statues. Another important find was the depth on the rock on which the building stood. This rock was excavated
to 8 or 9 ft. deep over and are 107 by 127 ft. The sculptors on the north were created by Scopas, the ones on the
north Bryaxis, on the south Timotheus and on the west Leochares. The Mausoleum was adorned with many great
and beautiful sculptures. Some of these sculptures have been lost or only fragments have been found. Several of the
statues' original placements are only known through historical accounts. The great figures of Mausolus and
Artemisia stood in the chariot at the top of the top of the pyramid. The detached equestrian groups are placed at the
corners of the sub podium. The semi-colossal female heads they may have belonged to the acroteria of the two
T221
gables which may have represented the six Carian towns incorporated in Halicarnassus. Work still continues
today as groups continue to excavate and research the mausoleum's priceless pieces of art. Many modern scholars
and historians discuss what it looked like. We can only hope that one day we will find the missing physical piece and
written documents outlining the history of this great piece of architecture.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 36
Later history of the Mausoleum
The Mausoleum overlooked the city of Halicarnassus for many years. It was untouched when the city fell to
Alexander the Great in 334 BCE and still undamaged after attacks by pirates in 62 and 58 BCE. It stood above the
city's ruins for sixteen centuries. Then a series of earthquakes shattered the columns and sent the bronze chariot
crashing to the ground. By 1404 AD only the very base of the Mausoleum was still recognizable.
The Knights of St John of Rhodes invaded the region and built Bodrum Castle. When they decided to fortify it in
1494, they used the stones of the Mausoleum. In 1522 rumors of a Turkish invasion caused the Crusaders to
strengthen the castle at Halicarnassus (which was by then known as Bodrum) and much of the remaining portions of
the tomb were broken up and used in the castle walls. Sections of polished marble from the tomb can still be seen
there today.
At this time a party of knights entered the base of the monument and discovered the room containing a great coffin.
In many histories of the Mausoleum one can find the following story of what happened: The party, deciding it was
too late to open it that day, returned the next morning to find the tomb, and any treasure it may have contained,
plundered. The bodies of Mausolus and Artemisia were missing too. The small museum building next to the site of
the Mausoleum tells the story. Research done by archeologists in the 1960s shows that long before the knights came,
grave robbers had dug a tunnel under the grave chamber, stealing its contents. Also the museum states that it is most
likely that Mausolus and Artemisia were cremated, so only an urn with their ashes was placed in the grave chamber.
This explains why no bodies were found.
Before grinding and burning much of the remaining sculpture of the Mausoleum into lime for plaster, the Knights
removed several of the best works and mounted them in the Bodrum castle. There they stayed for three centuries.
Discovery and excavation
In the 19th century a British consul obtained several of the statues from the castle, which now reside in the British
Museum. In 1852 the British Museum sent the archaeologist Charles Thomas Newton to search for more remains of
the Mausoleum. He had a difficult job. He didn't know the exact location of the tomb, and the cost of buying up all
the small parcels of land in the area to look for it would have been astronomical. Instead Newton studied the
accounts of ancient writers like Pliny to obtain the approximate size and location of the memorial, then bought a plot
of land in the most likely location. Digging down, Newton explored the surrounding area through tunnels he dug
under the surrounding plots. He was able to locate some walls, a staircase, and finally three of the corners of the
foundation. With this knowledge, Newton was able to determine which plots of land he needed to buy.
Newton then excavated the site and found sections of the reliefs that decorated the wall of the building and portions
of the stepped roof. Also discovered was a broken stone chariot wheel some 2 m () in diameter, which came from the
sculpture on the Mausoleum's roof. Finally, he found the statues of Mausolus and Artemisia that had stood at the
pinnacle of the building. In October 1857 Newton carried blocks of marble from this site by the HMS Supply and
landed them in Malta. These blocks were used for the construction of a new dock in Malta for the Royal Navy.
Today this dock is known at Dock No. 1 in Cospicua, but the building blocks are hidden from view, submerged in
Dockyard Creek in the Grand Harbour.
From 1966 to 1977, the Mausoleum was thoroughly researched by Prof. Kristian Jeppesen of Aarhus University,
Denmark. He has produced a six-volume monograph, The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos.
The beauty of the Mausoleum was not only in the structure itself, but in the decorations and statues that adorned the
outside at different levels on the podium and the roof: statues of people, lions, horses, and other animals in varying
scales. The four Greek sculptors who carved the statues: Bryaxis, Leochares, Scopas and Timotheus were each
responsible for one side. Because the statues were of people and animals, the Mausoleum holds a special place in
history, as it was not dedicated to the gods of Ancient Greece.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 37
Today, the massive castle of the Knights of Malta still stands in Bodrum, and the polished stone and marble blocks
of the Mausoleum can be spotted built into the walls of the structure. At the site of the Mausoleum, only the
foundation remains, and a small museum. Some of the surviving sculptures at the British Museum include fragments
of statues and many slabs of the frieze showing the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. There the images of
Mausolus and his queen forever watch over the few broken remains of the beautiful tomb she built for him.
Modern buildings based upon the Mausoleum of Mausolus include the National Newark Building in Newark, New
Jersey, Grant's Tomb and 26 Broadway in New York City, Los Angeles City Hall, the Shrine of Remembrance in
Melbourne, Australia, the spire of St. George's Church, Bloomsbury in London, the Indiana War Memorial (and in
[231
turn Chase Tower) in Indianapolis, the Ancient Accepted Scottish Rite Southern Jurisdiction's headquarters, the
House of the Temple in Washington D.C., the Civil Courts Building in St. Louis, and the Soldiers and Sailors
T241
Memorial in Pittsburgh.
Notes
[I] "Mausoleion" meant " [building] dedicated to Mausolus"; thus, Mausoleum of Mausolus is a tautology..
[2] Kostof, Spiro (1985). A History of Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 9. ISBN 0-19-503473-2.
[3] Gloag, John (1969) [1958]. Guide to Western Architecture (Revised Edition ed.). The Hamlyn Publishing Group, p. 362.
[4] Smith, William (1870). "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, page 744" (http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/0751.html). .
Retrieved 2006-09-21.
[5] Colvin, Howard (1991). "Architecture and the after-life." Yale University, p30-31. New Haven Press.
[6] Colvin, Howard (1991). "Architecture and the after-life." Yale University, p30-31. New Haven Press.
[7] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, plO.
London
[8] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, plO.
London
[9] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, p6.
London
[10] "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, p7. London
[II] Colvin, Howard (1991). "Architecture and the after-life." Yale University, p30-31. New Haven Press.
[12] "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, p5. London
[13] "Architecture and the after-life." Yale University, p30-31. New Haven Press.
[14] Colvin, Howard (1991). "Architecture and the after-life." Yale University, p30-31. New Haven Press.
[15] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray,
London
[16] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, p9.
London
[17] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray,
London
[18] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray,
London
[19] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray, p. 9
London
[20] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray,
London
[21] Fergusson, James (1862). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains." J. Murray,
London
[22] "[A guide to the] mausoleum room." (1886). the trustees, London
[23] "Indiana War Memorial Exterior" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20071013122718/http://in.gov/iwm/warmemorial/iwm_exterior.
html). State of Indiana. Archived from the original (http://www.in.gov/iwm/warmemorial/iwm_exterior.html) on 2007-10-13. . Retrieved
2010-12-21. See also http://www.in.gov/iwm/2333.htm
[24] Christine H. O'Toole (September 20, 2009). "The Long Weekend: Pittsburgh, Three Ways" (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/
content/story/2009/09/14/ST2009091402834.html). Washington Post. .
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
38
Further reading
• Kristian Jeppesen, et al. The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos, 6 vols.
External links
• (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Turkey/_Periods/Greek/_Texts/
LETGKB/Mausoleum*.html) — The Tomb of Mausolus (W.R. Lethaby's reconstruction of the Mausoleum,
1908)
• Livius.org: Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/halicarnassus/
halicarnassus_mausoleum.html)
Colossus of Rhodes
The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the Greek Titan
Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes on the Greek island
of Rhodes by Chares of Lindos between 292 and 280 BC.
It is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World. It was constructed to celebrate Rhodes' victory
over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I Monophthalmus,
who unsuccessfully besieged Rhodes in 305 BC. Before its
destruction, the Colossus of Rhodes stood over 30 meters
(107 ft) high, making it one of the tallest statues of the
ancient world
[l]
Siege of Rhodes
Alexander the Great died at the early age of 32 in 323 BC
without having had time to put into place any plans for his
succession. Fighting broke out among his generals, the
Diadochi, with four of them eventually dividing up much
of his empire in the Mediterranean area. During the
fighting, Rhodes had sided with Ptolemy, and when
Ptolemy eventually took control of Egypt, Rhodes and
Ptolemaic Egypt formed an alliance which controlled
much of the trade in the eastern Mediterranean.
Antigonus I Monophthalmus was upset by this turn of
events. In 305 BC he had his son Demetrius Poliorcetes,
also a general, invade Rhodes with an army of 40,000;
however, the city was well defended, and Demetrius — whose name "Poliorcetes" signifies the "besieger of
cities" — had to start construction of a number of massive siege towers in order to gain access to the walls. The first
was mounted on six ships, but
Drawing of Colossus of Rhodes, illustrated in the Grolier
Society's 1911 Book of Knowledge.
Colossus of Rhodes
39
these capsized in a storm before they could be used. He
tried again with a larger, land-based tower named
Helepolis, but the Rhodian defenders stopped this by
flooding the land in front of the walls so that the rolling
tower could not move.
In 304 BC a relief force of ships sent by Ptolemy
arrived, and Demetrius's army abandoned the siege,
leaving most of their siege equipment. To celebrate
their victory, the Rhodians sold the equipment left
behind for 300 talents and decided to use the money
to build a colossal statue of their patron god, Helios.
Construction was left to the direction of Chares, a
native of Lindos in Rhodes, who had been involved
with large-scale statues before. His teacher, the sculptor
Lysippos, had constructed a 22 meter (70 ft) high bronze statue of Zeus at Tarentum
Colossus of Rhodes, imagined in a 16th-century engraving by Martin
Heemskerck, part of his series of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Construction
Ancient accounts, which differ to some degree, describe the structure as being built with iron tie bars to which brass
plates were fixed to form the skin. The interior of the structure, which stood on a 15-meter- (50-foot-) high white
Ml
marble pedestal near the Mandraki harbor entrance, was then filled with stone blocks as construction progressed.
Other sources place the Colossus on a breakwater in the harbor. The statue itself was over 30 meters (107 ft) tall.
Much of the iron and bronze was reforged from the various weapons Demetrius's army left behind, and the
abandoned second siege tower may have been used for scaffolding around the lower levels during construction.
Upper portions were built with the use of a large earthen ramp. During the building, workers would pile mounds of
dirt on the sides of the colossus. Upon completion all of the dirt was removed and the colossus was left to stand
alone. After twelve years, in 280 BC, the statue was completed. Preserved in Greek anthologies of poetry is what is
believed to be the genuine dedication text for the Colossus.
To you, o Sun, the people of Dorian Rhodes set up this bronze statue reaching to Olympus, when they had
pacified the waves of war and crowned their city with the spoils taken from the enemy. Not only over the seas
but also on land did they kindle the lovely torch of freedom and independence. For to the descendants of
Herakles belongs dominion over sea and land.
Possible construction method
Modern engineers have put forward a plausible hypothesis for the statue construction, based on the technology of
those days (which was not based on the modern principles of earthquake engineering), and the accounts of Philo and
Pliny who both saw and described the remains.
The base pedestal was at least 60 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m) in diameter and either circular or
octagonal. The feet were carved in stone and covered with thin bronze plates riveted together. Eight forged iron bars
set in a radiating horizontal position formed the ankles and turned up to follow the lines of the legs while becoming
progressively smaller. Individually cast curved bronze plates 60 inches (unknown operator: u'strong 1 mm) square
with turned in edges were joined together by rivets through holes formed during casting to form a series of rings. The
lower plates were 1-inch (unknown operator: u'strong' mm) in thickness to the knee and 3/4 inch thick from knee
to abdomen, while the upper plates were 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick except where additional strength was required at joints
such as the shoulder, neck, etc. The legs would need to be filled at least to the knees with stones for stability.
Accounts described earthen mounds used to aid construction; however, to reach the top of the statue would have
Colossus of Rhodes 40
required a mound 300 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m) in diameter, which exceeded the available land area,
so modern engineers have proposed that the abandoned siege towers stripped down would have made efficient
scaffolding.
A computer simulation of this construction indicated that an earthquake would have caused a cascading failure of the
rivets, causing the statue to break up at the joints while still standing instead of breaking after falling to the ground,
as described in second hand accounts. The arms would have been first to separate, followed by the legs. The knees
were less likely to break and the ankles' survival would have depended on the quality of the workmanship.
Destruction
Further information: 226 BC Rhodes earthquake
The statue stood for 56 years until Rhodes was hit by the 226 BC Rhodes earthquake, when significant damage was
also done to large portions of the city, including the harbor and commercial buildings, which were destroyed. The
statue snapped at the knees and fell over on to the land. Ptolemy III offered to pay for the reconstruction of the
statue, but the oracle of Delphi made the Rhodians afraid that they had offended Helios, and they declined to rebuild
it.
The remains lay on the ground as described by Strabo (xiv.2.5) for over 800 years, and even broken, they were so
impressive that many traveled to see them. Pliny the Elder remarked that few people could wrap their arms around
ro]
the fallen thumb and that each of its fingers was larger than most statues.
In 654, an Arab force under Muslim caliph Muawiyah I captured Rhodes, and according to the chronicler
Theophanes the Confessor, the remains were sold to a "Jewish merchant of Edessa". The buyer had the statue
broken down, and transported the bronze scrap on the backs of 900 camels to his home. Theophanes is the sole
source of this story to which all other sources can be traced. The stereotypical Arab destruction and the purported
sale to a Jew possibly originated as a powerful metaphor for Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the destruction of a great
and awesome statue, and would have been understood by any 7th century monk as evidence for the coming
apocalypse. The same story is recorded by Barhebraeus, writing in Syriac in the 13th century in Edessa (see E.A.
Wallis Budge, The Chronography of Gregory Abu'l-Faraj, vol I, p. 98, APA - Philo Press, Amsterdam, 1932): (After
the Arab pillage of Rhodes) "And a great number of men hauled on strong ropes which were tied round the brass
Colossus which was in the city and pulled it down. And they weighed from it three thousand loads of Corinthian
brass, and they sold it to a certain Jew from Emesa" (the Syrian city of Homs).
Colossus of Rhodes
41
Posture
The harbor-straddling Colossus was a figment of medieval
imaginations based on the dedication text's mention of "over land
and sea" twice. Many older illustrations (above) show the statue
with one foot on either side of the harbor mouth with ships passing
under it: "...the brazen giant of Greek fame, with conquering limbs
astride from land to land..." ("The New Colossus", a poem
engraved on a bronze plaque and mounted inside the Statue of
Liberty in 1903). Shakespeare's Cassius in Julius Caesar
(I,ii,136— 38) says of Caesar:
Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world
Like a Colossus, and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs and peep about
To find ourselves dishonorable graves
Shakespeare alludes to the Colossus also in Troilus and Cressida
(V.5) and in Henry IV, Part 1 (V.l).
While these fanciful images feed the misconception, the
mechanics of the situation reveal that the Colossus could not have
straddled the harbor as described in Lempriere's Classical
Dictionary. If the completed statue straddled the harbor, the entire
mouth of the harbor would have been effectively closed during the
entirety of the construction; nor would the ancient Rhodians have had the means to dredge and re-open the harbor
after construction. The statue fell in 224 BC: if it straddled the harbor mouth, it would have entirely blocked the
harbor. Also, since the ancients would not have had the ability to remove the entire statue from the harbor, it would
not have remained visible on land for the next 800 years, as discussed above. Even neglecting these objections, the
statue was made of bronze, and an engineering analysis proved that it could not have been built with its legs apart
without collapsing from its own weight. Many researchers have considered alternate positions for the statue which
would have made it more feasible for actual construction by the ancients. [1 1]
The Colossus of Rhodes depicted in 1
Location of the ruins
Media reports in 1989 initially suggested that large stones found on the seabed off the coast of Rhodes might have
been the remains of the Colossus; however this theory was later shown to be without merit.
Another theory published in an article in 2008 by Ursula Vedder suggests that the Colossus was never in the port, but
rather was part of the Acropolis of Rhodes, on a hill today named Monte Smith, which overlooks the port area. The
temple on top of Monte Smith has traditionally thought to have been devoted to Apollo, but according to Vedder, it
would have been a Helios sanctuary. The enormous stone foundations at the temple site, the function of which is not
definitively known by modern scholars, are proposed by Vedder to have been the supporting platform of the
Colossus.
Colossus of Rhodes 42
Statue of Liberty
The design, posture and dimensions of the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor are based on what the Colossus
was thought by engineers in the late 19th century to have looked like. There is a famous reference to the Colossus in
the sonnet "The New Colossus" by Emma Lazarus, written in 1883 and inscribed on a plaque located inside the
pedestal of the Statue of Liberty:
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,
With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame
Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name
Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand
Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.
"Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she
With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"
Rebuilding
There has been much debate as to whether to rebuild the Colossus. Those in favor say it would boost tourism in
Rhodes greatly, but those against construction say it would cost too large an amount (over 100 million euro). This
idea has been revived many times since it was first proposed in 1970 but, due to lack of funding, work has not yet
started.
In November 2008, it was announced that the Colossus of Rhodes was to be rebuilt. According to Dimitris
Koutoulas, who is heading the project in Greece, rather than reproducing the original Colossus, the new structure
will be a, "highly, highly innovative light sculpture, one that will stand between 60 and 100 metres tall so that people
can physically enter it." The project is expected to cost up to €200m which will be provided by international donors
and the German artist Gert Hof. The new Colossus will adorn an outer pier in the harbour area of Rhodes, where it
will be visible to passing ships. Koutoulas said, "Although we are still at the drawing board stage, Gert Hof s plan is
to make it the world's largest light installation, a structure that has never before been seen in any place of the
world."
Popular culture
• In Sergio Leone's sword and sandal film 77 Colosso di Rodi (1961) the Colossus stands spread-legged over the
only entrance to Rhodes' harbour. In this instance the statue is hollow (like the Statue of Liberty) and is armed
with defensive weaponry.
• Sylvia Plath's poem "The Colossus", refers to the Colossus of Rhodes.
• In the PlayStation 2 game God of War II, both Rhodes and the Colossus of Rhodes are featured at the start of the
game, offering an interactive theory as to how the Colossus was destroyed. The Colossus of Rhodes was brought
to life by Zeus to destroy the protagonist Kratos, however, Kratos destroys the Colossus.
• In the novel Seven Ancient Wonders by Australian novelist Matthew Reilly, The Colossus is fictionalised to have
been holding a piece of the Golden Capstone (which fictionally sat atop the Great Pyramid) and after being felled
by the earthquake, was hidden in a trap laden abandoned mine.
Colossus of Rhodes 43
• The novel The Bronze God of Rhodes by L. Sprague de Camp is a fictionalized account of the building of the
Colossus.
• In the Civilization (series) and Rise of Nations, 'The Colossus' is one of the first wonders available.
• In the video game Talismania, one of the levels consists of building the Colossus to scare away the Kraken.
Notes
[I] The Colossus of Nero was either 100 or 120-foot (unknown operator: u'strong' m) tall, depending on the source.
[2] Pliny's Natural History xxxiv.18.
[3] Forty cubits high, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xxxiv.18).
[4] Accounts of Philo of Byzantium ca. 150 B.C. and Pliny (Plineus Caius Secundus) ca. 50 A.D. based on viewing the broken remains
[5] Anthologia Graeca 4, 171 H. Beckby (Munich 1957)
[6] International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Engineering Aspects of the Collapse of the Colossus of Rhodes Statue.
pages 69 - 85 ISBN 978-1-4020-2203-6
[7] Bozeman, AddaBruemmer (1994). Politics and culture in international history: from the ancient Near East to the opening of the modern age
(http://books. google. com/books?id=XrzTZmsKZAoC&pg=PA108&dq=226+bc+rhodes+earthquake#v=onepage&q=226 be rhodes
earthquake&f=false). Transaction Publishers, pp. 108. ISBN 1560007354. .
[8] Natural History, book 34, xviii, 41.
[9] See also Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos, De administrando imperio xx-xxi.
[10] The Arabs and the Colossus. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 3rd ser. L.I. Conrad July 1996 Pg 165-187
[II] http://www.greatest-unsolved-mysteries.com/colossus-of-rhodes.html
[12] P.M. HISTORY April 2008 (http://www.presseportal.de/pm/55502/! 174399/grunerJahr_p_m_history/)
[13] Helena Smith, Colossus of Rhodes to be rebuilt as giant light sculpture, Guardian UK Online, 17 November 2008 (retrieved 19 November
2008). (http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/nov/17/colossus-rhodes-greece-sculpture)
References
• James R. Ashley (2004). Macedonian Empire. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-1918-0. page 75 (http://
print.google.com/print?id=LRiEwkyH6LEC&pg=75&sig=nHQaSYL5WAVIB4rooJGhyDSUR10)
• Herbert Maryon, "The Colossus of Rhodes" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 76 (1956), pp. 68—86. A sculptor's
speculations on the Colossus of Rhodes.
• D. E. L. Haynes, "Philo of Byzantium and the Colossus of Rhodes" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 77.2 (1957),
pp. 311—312. A response to Maryon.
• M. H. Gabriel, BCH 16 (1932), pp 332-42.
External links
• Discover Rhodes (http://www.discover-rhodes.com/features/the-colossus-of-rhodes/)
• Rhodes Guide (http://www.rhodesguide.com/rhodes/colossus_rhodes.php)
Lighthouse of Alexandria
44
Lighthouse of Alexandria
Lighthouse of Alexandria
Drawing by archaeologist Hermann Thiersch (1909).
Location Pharos, Alexandria, Egypt
Coordinates 31°12'50.15"N 29°53'08.38"E
Year first constructed c. 280 BC
Deactivated 1303/1323
Foundation
Construction
Stone
Masonry
Height 393^50 ft (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong' unknown
operator: u'strong')
Range 47 km (unknown operator: u'strong' mi)
The Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the Pharos of
Alexandria (in Ancient Greek, 6 Oapoq AXe^avSpLvoi;), was a tower
built between 280 and 247 BC on the island of Pharos at Alexandria,
Egypt. Its purpose was to guide sailors into the harbor at night.
With a height variously estimated at somewhere between 393 and 450
ft (unknown operator: u'strong 1 and unknown operator: u'strong'
m), it was for many centuries among the tallest man-made structures
on Earth. It was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Origins
Pharos was a small island just off the coast of Alexandria. It was
supposedly inhabited by people who would destroy any ship that was
wrecked off of its coast. To deter this problem, Ptolemy I had the
lighthouse built. It was linked to the mainland by a man-made connection named the Heptastadion, which thus
formed one side of the city's harbour. The tower erected there guided mariners at night, through its fire, as well as
being a landmark by day.
Three-dimensional reconstruction based on a
comprehensive 2006 study.
Lighthouse of Alexandria
45
Construction and destruction
The lighthouse was completed in the 3rd century BC. After Alexander the Great died of a fever at age 32, Ptolemy
Soter announced himself king in 305 BC, and commissioned its construction shortly thereafter. The building was
finished during his son Ptolemy Philadelphos's reign.
Strabo reported that Sostratus had a dedication inscribed in metal letters to the "Saviour Gods". Later Pliny the Elder
wrote that Sostratus was the architect, which is disputed. In the second century AD the satirist Lucian wrote that
Sostratus inscribed his name under plaster bearing the name of Ptolemy. This was so that when the plaster with
Ptolemy's name fell off, Sostratus's name would be visible in the stone.
The fullest description of the lighthouse comes from the Arab traveler Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn el-Andaloussi, who
visited the structure in 1165 AD. His description runs:
The Pharos rises at the end of the island. The building is square, about 8.5 metres (unknown operator:
u'strong 1 ft) each side. The sea surrounds the Pharos except on the east and south sides. This platform
measures, along its sides, from the tip, down to the foot of the Pharos walls, 6.5 metres (unknown operator:
u'strong' ft) in height. However, on the sea side, it is larger because of the construction and is steeply inclined
like the side of a mountain. As the height of the platform increases towards the walls of the Pharos its width
narrows until it arrives at the measurements above.
... The doorway to the Pharos is high up. A ramp about 183 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) long
used to lead up to it. This ramp rests on a series of curved arches; my companion got beneath one of the arches
and stretched out his arms but he was not able to reach the sides. There are 16 of these arches, each gradually
getting higher until the doorway is reached, the last one being especially high.
Constructed from large blocks of light-colored stone, the tower was made up of three stages: a lower square section
with a central core, a middle octagonal section, and, at the top, a circular section. At its apex was positioned a mirror
which reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night. Extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian mint
show that a statue of a triton was positioned on each of the building's four corners. A statue of Poseidon stood atop
the tower during the Roman period. The Pharos' masonry blocks were interlocked, sealed together using molten lead,
r3i
to withstand the pounding of the waves.
There are ancient claims that light from the lighthouse could be seen from up to 29 miles (unknown operator:
u'strong' km) away.
After the Muslims took over all of Egypt, the top of the Pharos
supposedly became a mosque, as the beacon was no longer in working
order. The Pharos remained this way until its destruction in the 14th
century.
The lighthouse was badly damaged in the earthquake of 956, then
again in 1303 and 1323. The two earthquakes in 1303 and 1323
damaged the lighthouse to the extent that the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta
reported no longer being able to enter the ruin. Even the stubby
remnant disappeared in 1480, when the then-Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay,
built a mediaeval fort on the former location of the building using some
of the fallen stone.
A mosaic depicting the Pharos of Alexandria,
from Olbia, Libya c. 4th century AD
Recent archaeological research
Lighthouse of Alexandria
46
French archeologists led by Jean- Yves Empereur discovered remains of the lighthouse in late 1994 on the floor of
Alexandria's Eastern Harbour. Some of these remains were brought up and were lying at the harbour on public view
at the end of 1995. A Nova program chronicled the discovery
remains. It is possible to go diving and see the ruins.
[4]
Subsequent satellite imaging has revealed further
Significance
Pharos became the etymological origin of the word 'lighthouse' in Greek (q>dgog), many Romance languages, such
as French (phare), Italian and Spanish (faro), Romanian (far) and Portuguese (farol) and even some Slavic
languages like Bulgarian (far).
In 2008 it was suggested that the Pharos was the vertical yardstick used in the first precise measurement of the size
of the earth.
Pharos in culture
The lighthouse remains a civic symbol of the city of Alexandria and of the
Alexandria Governorate with which the city is more or less coterminous. A
stylized representation of the Lighthouse appears on the flag and seal of the
Governorate and on many public services of the city, including the seal of
Alexandria University.
The Pharos of Abusir, an ancient
funerary monument thought to be
modeled after the Pharos at
Alexandria, with which it is
approximately contemporaneous
Lighthouse of Alexandria
47
In architecture
• A well-preserved ancient tomb in the town of Abusir, 48 kilometres
(unknown operator: u'strong' mi) southwest of Alexandria, is thought to be
a scaled-down model of the Alexandria Pharos. Known colloquially under
various names — the Pharos of Abusir, the Abusir funerary monument and
Burg al-Arab (Arab's Tower) — it consists of a 3-story tower, approximately
20 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) in height, with a square base, an
octagonal midsection and cylindrical upper section, like the building upon
which it was apparently modelled. It dates to the reign of Ptolemy II (285—246
BC), and is therefore likely to have been built at about the same time as the
Alexandria Pharos.
• The design of minarets in many early Egyptian Islamic mosques followed a
similar three-stage design to that of the Pharos, attesting to the building's
broader architectural influence.
• A replica of the Lighthouse of Alexandria was constructed in the Window of
the World Cultural Park in Shenzhen, China.
Replica constructed in 2005 at the
Window of the World Cultural Park,
in the Chinese cities of Changsha and
Shenzhen
In books
• Julius Caesar, in his Civil Wars (Part III, Sections 111-1 12, esp. Section 112), describes the Pharos and how it
was a key landmark to his subduing Ptolemy XIV's armies (48 BC), describing its strategic importance in his
sentences "Now because of the narrowness of the strait there can be no access by ship to the harbour without the
consent of those who hold the Pharos. In view of this, Caesar took the precaution of landing his troops while the
enemy was preoccupioed with fighting, seized the Pharos and posted a garrison there. The result was that safe
access was secured for his corn supplies and reinforcements." [It was common for Caesar in his writings to refer
to himself in the third person.]
• The Romano-Jewish historian Josephus (37 — c.100 AD) describes it in his book The Jewish War (4.10.5) when
he gives a geographical overview of Egypt.
• It was described at length in the Zhufan Zhi (sf Hr*, "Records of Foreign Peoples") by Zhao Rugua
(1170—1228), a Chinese customs inspector for the port city of Quanzhou during the Song Dynasty.
[7]
Reconstruction
Ahmed Maged of Daily News Egypt wrote in April 2008 that Bassam el Shammaa was appealing to Egyptian
ro]
authorities to rebuild the Pharos. Attempts had been made to restore the lighthouse thirty years prior, but to no
avail. This new restoration would include a shopping mall.
References
[1] Tomlinson, Richard Allan (1992). From Mycenae to Constantinople: the evolution of the ancient city (http://books.google.co.uk/
books ?id=UNEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105&dq=pliny+Sostratus++lighthouse#v=onepage&q=pliny Sostratus lighthouse&f=false).
Routledge. pp. 104-105. ISBN 978-0415059985. .
[2] Mckenzie, Judith (2007). Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt 300 B.CA.D 700 (http://books.google.co.uk/
books ?id=KFNCaZEZKYAC&pg=PA41&dq=plaster+Sostratus+ptolemy+lighthouse#v=snippet&q=plasterlighthouse&f=false). Yale
University Press, p. 41. ISBN 978-0300115550. .
[3] Beaver, Patrick (1971). A History of Lighthouses. London: Peter Davies Ltd, pp. 10-1 1. ISBN 0-432-01290-7.
[4] "NOVA online - Treasures of the Sunken City" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sunken/). Pbs.org. November 18, 1997. . Retrieved
March 5, 2012.
[5] DIO volume 14 (http://www.dioi.org/vols/weO.pdf) pages 3-12 and page 2 footnote.
[6] Petersen A.: Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, page 188. Routledge, 1996.
Lighthouse of Alexandria 48
[7] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and
Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 662.
[8] Byl Ahmed Maged. "Daily News Egypt - Full Article" (http://www. dailystaregypt.com/article. aspx?ArticleID=13225).
Dailystaregypt.com. . Retrieved December 30, 2011.
Article Sources and Contributors 49
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 52
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:SevenWondersOfTheWorld.png Source: http://en.wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File: Seven Wo ndersOfTheWorld.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was
M;nk22 al en.wikipedia
File:Pyramide Kheops.JPG Source: http : //en.wikipedia. org/ w/index.php?title=File: Pyramide_Kheops.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Contributors:
Aoineko, Bradipus, Dirk Hiinniger, Hajor, 01ivier2, 3 anonymous edits
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Atlribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kandi
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File: PyramidDatePalms.jpg Source: http://en.wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File: PyramidDatePalms.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Infrogmation
File: KhufuPyramidCasingStone-BritishMuseum-Augustl9-08.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KhufuPyramidCasingStone-BritishMuseum-August 19-08.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Captmondo, JMCC1, Neithsabes, 1 anonymous edits
File:Great Pyramid Diagram.svg Source: http://e11.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?litle=File:Greal_Pyramid_Diagram.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Jeff
Dahl
File:Cheops grote gallerij.jpg Source: http://e11.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?title=File:Cheops_grote_gallerij.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Peter Prevos.
Original uploader was Peter Prevos at nl.wikipedia
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OlafTausch
File:Giza pyramid complex (map).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giza_pyramid_complex_(map).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0
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Admrboltz, AustralianRupert, Bidgee, Bukvoed, Edward, Groupsixty, Gsl, JMCC1, Kallewirsch, Man vyi, Mattes, Rcbutcher, 1 anonymous edits
File:Spelterini Pyramids.jpg Source: http://en.wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File: Spelterini_Pyramids.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Berrucomons, Cwbm (commons), Docu,
GDK, JMCC1, JovanCormac, Lupo, Neithsabes, Yuriy75, 3 anonymous edits
Image: Comparison of pyramids.svg Source: http ://en.wikipedia. org/ w/index.php'?title= File :Comparison_of_pyramids.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Cmglee
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Bibi Saint-Pol, Hailey C. Shannon, Look2Seel , Luctor, Man vyi, Nuno Tavares, Ranveig, Rex, Ronaldino, SamuelRiv, Semnoz, Turelio, Wknight94, Wst, Zunkir, Uberraschungsbilder, 10
anonymous edits
Image:Ogrody semiramidy.jpg Source: http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogrody_semiramidy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonMoos, Bibi Saint-Pol, Duesentrieb,
Mikhail Ryazanov, Nuno Tavares, 1 anonymous edits
File:Hanging Gardens ofBabylon.gif Source: http: //en. wikipedia.org/w /index. php?title=File: Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Peter
Andersen, 2 anonymous edits
File:Miniaturk 009.jpg Source: http: //en. wikipedia.org/w /index. php'?title=File: Miniaturk_009.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: autor fotografie Zee Prime
Original uploader was Zee Prime at cs.wikipcdia
Image: ArtemisEphesus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?tit!e=FiIe:ArtemisEphesus.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Butko, DenghiuComm,
G.dallorto, Jastrow, Y440
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Image:CoIumn drum Ephesus.JPG Source: http: //en. wikipedia.org/w /index. php?title=File:Column_drum_Ep hesus.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors:
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File:Fontana di Diana Efesina-Tivoli, Villa d'Este.jpg Source: http://en.wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File:Fontana_di_Diana_Efesina-Tivoli,_Villa_d'Este. jpg License: Creative Commons
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File:Statue ofZeus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statue_of_Zeus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aseditor, G.dallorto, Gryffindor, Jastrow, Larry
Yuma, Macion96, Man vyi, Shakko, Talmoryair, Warburg, 3 anonymous edits
File:Zeus Hermitage St. Petersburg 20021009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zeus_Hermitage_St._Petersburg_20021009.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Sanne Smit
File:Forngrekiska mynt fran Elis med bilder efter Fidias staty av Zeus i Olympias ZeustempeLjpg Source:
http://en.wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File:Forngrekiska_mynt_fran_Elis_med_bilder_efter_Fidias_staty_a v_Zeus_i_01ympias_Zeustempel.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alfons
Aberg, FinnBjo, Gryffindor, Krinkle, Nicke L, Str4nd, 3 anonymous edits
File: Workshop ofPhidias.jpg Source: http: //en.wikipedia. org/ w/index.php'?title= File: Workshop_of_Phidias.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Alun Salt
File: The maussolleion model dsc02711-miniaturk nevit.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_maussolleion_model_dsc0271 l-miniaturk_nevit.jpg License: GNU
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File:HaIicarnassus Mausoleum.jpg Source: http: //en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File: Halicarnassus_Mausoleum.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: User
bazyleklOO at Flickr, http://www.flickr.com/photos/bazylek/
File:Camera Pictures 032.jpg Source: http ://e 11. wikipedia. org/ w/index.php?title=File: Camera_Pictures_032.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bigdaddyl204
File: Melbourne war memoriaI.jpg Source: http ://en. wikipedia. org/ w/index.php'?title=File: Melbourne_war_memorial.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
Contributors: Bidgee, Dcoetzee, Donaldytong, Fir0002, Matilda, Mattinbgn, 1 anonymous edits
File: WashDCMasonic2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WashDCMasonic2007.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abraham S.
Image:rhodes0211.jpg Source: http://eii.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhodes021 l.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Butko, Duesentrieb, Gryffindor, Hailey C.
Shannon, Jkelly, Nuno Tavares, Red devil 666
Image: Colossus ofRhodes.jpg Source: http://e11.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?title=File:Colossus_of_Rhodes.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Marten van Heemskerck (1498-1574)
Image:CoIosse de Rhodes (Barclay).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colosse_de_Rhodes_(Barclay).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: gravure sur bois de
Sidney Barclay numerisee Google
file:Lighthouse - Thiersch.gif Source: http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=File:Lighthouse_ -_Thiersch.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia
File: PHAROS2006.jpg Source: http: //en. wikipedia.org/w /index. php'?title=File: PHAROS2006.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Emad Victor SHENOUDA (de:User:Xlance original
uploader to de:)
File:Mosaic Ancient Lighthouse ofAIexandria.jpg Source: http ://en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?title=File: Mosaic_Ancient_Lighthouse_of_Alexandria.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Qasr Libya Museum
File:Pharos at Abuqir.jpg Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/ w/index.php?title=File:Pharos_at_Abuqir. jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Gene Poole
File:Lighthouse of Alexandria in Changsha China.jpg Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/ w/index.php'?title= File: Lighthouse_of_Alexandria_in_Changsha_China.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Croquant, Dawidbernard, Gryffindor, JMCC1, Millevache, Uberraschungsbilder, 2 anonymous edits
License 53
License
Creative Commons Alt rib 11 lion- Share Alike 3.0 Unpolled
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